Active electronically scanned array
This article needs additional citations for verification. (April 2015) |
An active electronically scanned array (AESA) is a type of
The AESA is a more advanced, sophisticated, second-generation of the original PESA phased array technology. PESAs can only emit a single beam of radio waves at a single frequency at a time. The PESA must utilize a
History
The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (November 2015) |
Bell Labs proposed replacing the Nike Zeus radars with a phased array system in 1960, and was given the go-ahead for development in June 1961. The result was the Zeus Multi-function Array Radar (ZMAR), an early example of an active electronically steered array radar system.[2] ZMAR became MAR when the Zeus program ended in favor of the Nike-X system in 1963. The MAR (Multi-function Array Radar) was made of a large number of small antennas, each one connected to a separate computer-controlled transmitter or receiver. Using a variety of beamforming and signal processing steps, a single MAR was able to perform long-distance detection, track generation, discrimination of warheads from decoys, and tracking of the outbound interceptor missiles.[3]
MAR allowed the entire battle over a wide space to be controlled from a single site. Each MAR, and its associated battle center, would process tracks for hundreds of targets. The system would then select the most appropriate battery for each one, and hand off particular targets for them to attack. One battery would normally be associated with the MAR, while others would be distributed around it. Remote batteries were equipped with a much simpler radar whose primary purpose was to track the outgoing
While MAR was ultimately successful, the cost of the system was enormous. When the ABM problem became so complex that even a system like MAR could no longer deal with realistic attack scenarios, the Nike-X concept was abandoned in favor of much simpler concepts like the Sentinel program, which did not use MAR. A second example, MAR-II, was abandoned in-place on Kwajalein Atoll.[4]
The first Soviet APAR, the
- The first military ground-based AESA was the J/FPS-3 which became fully operational with the 45th Aircraft Control and Warning Group of the Japan Self-Defense Forces in 1995.
- The first series production ship-based AESA was the OPS-24, a fire-control radar introduced on the Japanese Asagiri-class destroyer DD-155 Hamagiri launched in 1988.[5]
- The first airborne series production AESA was the EL/M-2075 Phalcon on a Boeing 707 of the Chilean Air Forcethat entered service in 1994.
- The first AESA on a combat aircraft was the J/APG-1 introduced on the Mitsubishi F-2 in 1995.[6]
- The first AESA on a missile is the seeker head for the AAM-4B, an air-to-air missile carried by the Mitsubishi F-2 and Mitsubishi-built McDonnell-Douglas F-15J.[6]
US based manufacturers of the AESA radars used in the F-22 and Super Hornet include Northrop Grumman[7] and Raytheon.[8] These companies also design, develop and manufacture the transmit/receive modules which comprise the 'building blocks' of an AESA radar. The requisite electronics technology was developed in-house via Department of Defense research programs such as MMIC Program.[9][10] In 2016 the Congress funded a military industry competition to produce new radars for two dozen National Guard fighter aircraft.[11]
Basic concept
Radar systems generally work by connecting an antenna to a powerful radio transmitter to emit a short pulse of signal. The transmitter is then disconnected and the antenna is connected to a sensitive receiver which amplifies any echos from target objects. By measuring the time it takes for the signal to return, the radar receiver can determine the distance to the object. The receiver then sends the resulting output to a
Starting in the 1960s new
AESAs are the result of further developments in solid-state electronics. In earlier systems the transmitted signal was originally created in a klystron or
The primary advantage of an AESA over a PESA is the capability of the different modules to operate on different frequencies. Unlike the PESA, where the signal is generated at single frequencies by a small number of transmitters, in the AESA each module generates and radiates its own independent signal. This allows the AESA to produce numerous simultaneous "sub-beams" that it can recognize due to different frequencies, and actively track a much larger number of targets. AESAs can also produce beams that consist of many different frequencies at once, using post-processing of the combined signal from a number of TRMs to re-create a display as if there was a single powerful beam being sent. However, this means that the noise present in each frequency is also received and added.
Advantages
AESAs add many capabilities of their own to those of the PESAs. Among these are: the ability to form multiple beams simultaneously, to use groups of TRMs for different roles concurrently, like radar detection, and, more importantly, their multiple simultaneous beams and scanning frequencies create difficulties for traditional, correlation-type radar detectors.
Low probability of intercept
Radar systems work by sending out a signal and then listening for its echo off distant objects. Each of these paths, to and from the target, is subject to the
The radar signal being sent out is a simple radio signal, and can be received with a simple radio receiver. Military aircraft and ships have defensive receivers, called "radar warning receivers" (RWR), which detect when an enemy radar beam is on them, thus revealing the position of the enemy. Unlike the radar unit, which must send the pulse out and then receive its reflection, the target's receiver does not need the reflection and thus the signal drops off only as the square of distance. This means that the receiver is always at an advantage [neglecting disparity in antenna size] over the radar in terms of range - it will always be able to detect the signal long before the radar can see the target's echo. Since the position of the radar is extremely useful information in an attack on that platform, this means that radars generally must be turned off for lengthy periods if they are subject to attack; this is common on ships, for instance.
Unlike the radar, which knows which direction it is sending its signal, the receiver simply gets a pulse of energy and has to interpret it. Since the radio spectrum is filled with noise, the receiver's signal is integrated over a short period of time, making periodic sources like a radar add up and stand out over the random background. The rough direction can be calculated using a rotating antenna, or similar passive array using
This technique is much less useful against a radar with a frequency-agile (solid state) transmitter. Since the AESA (or PESA) can change its frequency with every pulse (except when using doppler filtering), and generally does so using a random sequence, integrating over time does not help pull the signal out of the background noise. Moreover, a radar may be designed to extend the duration of the pulse and lower its peak power. An AESA or modern PESA will often have the capability to alter these parameters during operation. This makes no difference to the total energy reflected by the target but makes the detection of the pulse by an RWR system less likely.[12] Nor does the AESA have any sort of fixed pulse repetition frequency, which can also be varied and thus hide any periodic brightening across the entire spectrum. Older generation RWRs are essentially useless against AESA radars, which is why AESAs are also known as low probability of intercept radars. Modern RWRs must be made highly sensitive (small angles and bandwidths for individual antennas, low transmission loss and noise)[12] and add successive pulses through time-frequency processing to achieve useful detection rates.[13]
High jamming resistance
Jamming is likewise much more difficult against an AESA. Traditionally, jammers have operated by determining the operating frequency of the radar and then broadcasting a signal on it to confuse the receiver as to which is the "real" pulse and which is the jammer's. This technique works as long as the radar system cannot easily change its operating frequency. When the transmitters were based on klystron tubes this was generally true, and radars, especially airborne ones, had only a few frequencies to choose among. A jammer could listen to those possible frequencies and select the one to be used to jam.
Most radars using modern electronics are capable of changing their operating frequency with every pulse. This can make jamming less effective; although it is possible to send out broadband white noise to conduct barrage jamming against all the possible frequencies, this reduces the amount of jammer energy in any one frequency. An AESA has the additional capability of spreading its frequencies across a wide band even in a single pulse, a technique known as a "chirp". In this case, the jamming will be the same frequency as the radar for only a short period, while the rest of the radar pulse is unjammed.
AESAs can also be switched to a receive-only mode, and use these powerful jamming signals to track its source, something that required a separate receiver in older platforms. By integrating received signals from the targets' own radar along with a lower rate of data from its own broadcasts, a detection system with a precise RWR like an AESA can generate more data with less energy. Some receive beamforming-capable systems, usually ground-based, may even discard a transmitter entirely.
However, using a single receiving antenna only gives a direction. Obtaining a range and a target vector requires at least two physically separate passive devices for
Other advantages
Since each element in an AESA is a powerful radio receiver, active arrays have many roles besides traditional radar. One use is to dedicate several of the elements to reception of common radar signals, eliminating the need for a separate radar warning receiver. The same basic concept can be used to provide traditional radio support, and with some elements also broadcasting, form a very high
AESAs are also much more reliable than either PESAs or older designs. Since each module operates independently of the others, single failures have little effect on the operation of the system as a whole. Additionally, the modules individually operate at low powers, perhaps 40 to 60 watts, so the need for a large high-voltage power supply is eliminated.
Replacing a mechanically scanned array with a fixed AESA mount (such as on the
Limitations
With a half wavelength distance between the elements, the maximum beam angle is approximately °. With a shorter element distance, the highest field of view (FOV) for a flat phased array antenna is currently 120° (°),[17] although this can be combined with mechanical steering as noted above.[18][19]
List of existing systems
Airborne systems
- Aselsan
- MURAD, for the TAI TF-X Kaan
- MURAD, for the
- Captor-E CAESAR (CAPTOR Active Electronically Scanning Array Radar) for the Eurofighter Typhoon
- Defence Research and Development Organisation
- DRDO LSTAR - Radar for Airborne Early Warning platform.
- Uttam AESA multifunction radar for HAL Tejas
- Virupaaksha multifunction radar for Su-30MKI, an advance variant of Uttam AESA
- Elta Systems
- EL/M-2083 aerostat-mounted air search radar
- Mirage 2000, FA-50 Block 20.
- AEW&Csystem
- EL/W-2085 advanced version of the radar for the EL/M-2075, used on the Gulfstream G550
- EL/W-2090 similar to the EL/W-2085, only used on the Ilyushin Il-76
- Ericsson
- AEW&C
- JAS 39 Gripen.
- EMB 145 AEW&C
- Hanwha Systems
- KF-21 radar for KAI KF-21 Boramae
- LIG Nex1
- ESR-500A air-cooled radar, roughly equivalent to Raytheon PhamtomStrike, option for KAI FA-50 Block 20
- Mitsubishi Electric Corporation
- J/APG-1 / J/APG-2 AESA for the Mitsubishi F-2 fighter
- HPS-104 for the Mitsubishi SH-60
- Multifunction RF Sensor for Mitsubishi ATD-X
- Northrop Grumman
- F-22 Raptor
- AN/APG-80, for the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
- F-35 Lightning II
- B-1B Lancerupgrades.
- AN/APG-85, for the F-35 Lightning II (Block 4)
- E-2D Advanced Hawkeye
- Multi-role Electronically Scanned Array (MESA), for the Boeing E-7 Wedgetail
- AN/ASQ-236 Podded AESA Radar
- AN/ZPY-1 STARLite Small Tactical Radar - Lightweight, for manned and unmanned aircraft
- AN/ZPY-2 Multi-Platform Radar Technology Insertion Program (MP-RTIP)
- AN/ZPY-3 Multi-Function Active Sensor (MFAS) for MQ-4C Triton
- NRIET (Nanjing Research Institute of Electronic Technology/14 institute), 607 institute, and 38 institute
- Radar for AEW&C system[20]
- Radar for Y-7 AWACS
- Radar for KJ-200[20]
- JF-17 ThunderBlock 3
- ZDK-03
- Type 1475 Radar for Chengdu J-20
- Chengdu J-10B/C[21]
- Shenyang J-16[22]
- Z-8AEW
- Vehicle Dismount and Exploitation Radar (VADER)
- Radar for
- Phazotron NIIR
- Zhuk-A/AM, optional for MiG-35
- Raytheon
- F-15SG
- EA-18G Growler
- F-15E Strike Eagle & F-15EX Eagle II
- AN/APG-84 RACR (Raytheon Advanced Combat Radar) for F-16 and F/A-18 upgrades.
- Northrop Grumman B-2 Spiritbomber
- AN/APS-149. Also for the Boeing P-8 Poseidon
- PhantomStrike air-cooled AESA radar for the FA-50 Block 20.
- Raytheon Sentinel ASTOR (Airborne STand-Off Radar)
- Saab
- Leonardo)
- PicoSAR[24]
- Raven ES-05 AESAJAS-39E Gripen NG[26]
- Seaspray 5000E[27]
- Seaspray 7000E,[28] for helicopters
- Seaspray 7500E[29] for General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper
- Vixen 500E[30]
- Vixen 1000E[31]
- Rafalefighter
- Tikhomirov NIIP
- N036 Byelka, for Sukhoi Su-57
- Thales
- Rafalefighter
- Toshiba
- HPS-106, air & surface search radar, for the Kawasaki P-1 maritime patrol aircraft, three antenna arrays.
- Vega Radio Engineering Corporation -
- radar for Beriev A-100
Surface systems (land, maritime)
The first AESA radar employed on an operational warship was the Japanese OPS-24 manufactured by Mitsubishi Electric introduced on the JDS Hamagiri (DD-155), the first ship of the latter batch of the Asagiri-class destroyer, launched in 1988.
- BAE Systems
- SAMPSON multifunction radar for the UK's Type 45 destroyers
- ARTISAN Type 997 multifunction radar for the UK's Type 23 and Type 26 Frigates and the Queen Elizabeth class aircraft carriers
- Bharat Electronics
- Cassidian
- BÜR - Cassidian, for the Bundeswehr
- COBRA Counter-battery radar
- TRS-4D
- BÜR -
- CEA Technologies
- CEAFAR a 4th generation, S-Band multifunction digital active phased array radar, installed on all RAN ANZAC class frigates.
- China
- Road-mobile "Anti-Stealth" JY-26 "Skywatch-U" 3-D long-range air surveillance radar.[34]
- H/LJG-346(8) on Chinese aircraft carrier Liaoning
- H/LJG-346 on Type 052C destroyer
- H/LJG-346A on Type 052D destroyer
- H/LJG-346B on Type 055 destroyer
- Type 305A Radar (Acquisition radar for the HQ-9 missile system)[35]
- YLC-2 Radar[36]
- Defence Research and Development Organisation
- Ashwini LLTR Radar- 4D AESA radar (used by Indian Air Force).[37]
- Arudhra Radar- Multi function AESA radar (used by Indian Air Force).[38]
- Swordfish Long Range Tracking Radar- Target acquisition and fire control radar for Indian Ballistic Missile Defence system.
- Air Defence Tactical Control Radar (ADTCR) - Tactical control radar.[39]
- Atulya Air Defence Fire Control Radar (ADFCR) - X-band, 3D Fire control radar.[40]
- Elta
- early warningAESA radar
- EL/M-2106 ATAR air defense fire control radar
- EL/M-2180 - WatchR Guard Multi-Mode Staring Ground Surveillance Radar
- EL/M-2248 MF-STAR multifunction naval radar
- EL/M-2258 Advanced Lightweight Phased Array ALPHA multifunction naval radar
- EL/M-2084 multimission radar (artillery weapon location, air defence and fire control)
- EL/M-2133WindGuard - Trophy active protection system radar
- Hensoldt
- Larsen & Toubro
- Air Defence Fire Control Radar System- 3D surveillance radar.[44]
- LIG Nex1
- SPS-550K medium-range air and surface surveillance radar for Incheon-class frigates and Daegu-class frigates
- Lockheed Martin
- AN/TPQ-53Counterfire Target Acquisition Radar
- AN/SPY-7Long Range Discrimination Radar
- AN/MPQ-64A4 Sentinel
- AN/TPY-4 3DELRR Three-Dimensional Expeditionary Long-Range Radar[45]
- MEADS's fire control radar
- Mitsubishi Electric Corporation
- Type 3 Chū-SAMMedium Range Surface-to-Air MissileSystem (Chu-SAM, SAM-4) multifunction radar
- OPS-24 (The world's first Naval Active Electronically Scanned Array radar) on Asagiri-class destroyers, Murasame-class destroyer (1994) and Takanami-class destroyers
- Izumo-class helicopter destroyer and Akizuki-class destroyer (2010)
- J/FPS-3 Japanese main ground-based air defense
- J/FPS-5 Japanese ground-based next-generation missile defense radar
- JTPS-P14 Transportable air defence radar
- JTPS-P16 Counter-battery radar
- National Chung-Shan Institute of Science and Technology
- Sea eagle eye- Multi function AESA radar[46]
- NEC
- J/TPS-102 Self-propelled ground-based radar, cylindrical array antenna.
- NNIIRT1L119 Nebo SVU mobile AESA 3-dimensional surveillance radar
- Northrop Grumman
- G/ATOR)
- HAMMR Highly Adaptable Multi-Mission Radar
- RADA Electronic Industries[47]
- Raytheon
- FlexDAR Flexible Distributed Array Radar
- U.S. National Missile defense Sea-based X-band Radar (XBR)
- THAADABM system
- CVN-21next-generation surface vessels
- AN/SPY-6 Air and Missile Defense Radar (AMDR) multifunction radar for U.S. Arleigh Burke destroyers, Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carrier
- Cobra Judy Replacement (CJR)/Cobra King on USNS Howard O. Lorenzen (T-AGM-25)
- Upgraded Early Warning Radar (UEWR) - PAVE PAWSupgrade from PESA to AESA
- KuRFS[48]
- Saab Group
- Selex ES
- KRONOS Land[50] & Naval[51] 3D multi-function radar
- RAN-40L 3D EWR
- RAT-31DL
- RAT-31DL/M
- Thales
- Ground Master 200
- Ground Master 400
- Ground Master 200 MM
- SMART-L MM [52]
- Sea Fire 500 on FREMM-ER frigates
- Sea Master 400
- Sea Watcher 100
- ThalesRaytheonSystems
- M3R
- Toshiba
- J/FPS-4 Cheaper than J/FPS-3, produced by Toshiba
- JMPQ-P13 Counter-battery radar, Toshiba
- VNIIRT Gamma DE mobile 3-dimensional solid-state AESA surveillance radar
- 50N6A multifunctional radar of the Morfey" ("Morpheus")
See also
- Radar configurations and types
- Receiver
- Passive electronically scanned array
- Low Probability of Intercept Radar
- Terrain-following radar
- Solid State Phased Array Radar System
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Bibliography
- Bell Labs (October 1975). ABM Research and Development at Bell Laboratories, Project History (PDF) (Technical report). Retrieved 13 December 2014.
External links
- Active Electronically Steered Arrays – A Maturing Technology (ausairpower.net)
- FLUG REVUE December 1998: Modern fighter radar technology (flug-revue.rotor.com)
- Phased Arrays and Radars – Past, Present and Future (mwjournal.com)