Amenhotep I
Amenhotep I | |
---|---|
Amenophis I, Amenôthes I[1] | |
Pharaoh | |
Reign | 1525–1504 BC (disputed), 20 years and 7 months in Manetho[2] |
Predecessor | Ahmose I |
Successor | Thutmose I |
Consort | Deir el-Bahri cache, but was likely originally buried in Dra' Abu el-Naga' (possibly Tomb ANB) or KV39 |
Dynasty | 18th Dynasty |
Amenhotep I (
He was a son of Ahmose I and Ahmose-Nefertari but had an elder brother, Ahmose-ankh, and was not expected to inherit the throne. However, sometime in the eight years between Ahmose I's 17th regnal year and his death, his heir apparent died and Amenhotep became crown prince.[7] He then acceded to the throne and ruled for about 21 years.[2]
Although his reign is poorly documented, it is possible to piece together a basic history from available evidence. He inherited the kingdom formed by his father's military conquests and maintained dominance over Nubia and the Nile Delta but probably did not attempt to maintain Egyptian power in the Levant. He continued the rebuilding of temples in Upper Egypt and revolutionized mortuary complex design by separating his tomb from his mortuary temple, setting a trend in royal funerary monuments which would persist throughout the New Kingdom. After his death, he was deified as a patron god of Deir el-Medina.[8]
Family
Amenhotep I was the son of
Beyond this, the relationships between Amenhotep I and other possible family members are unclear. Ahhotep II is usually called his wife and sister,[12] despite an alternative theory that she was his grandmother.[11] He is thought to have had one son by Ahhotep II, Amenemhat, who died while still very young.[12] This remains the consensus, although there are arguments against that relationship as well.[11] With no living heirs, Amenhotep was succeeded by Thutmose I, who he married to his "sister", Ahmose.[12] Since Ahmose is never given the title "King's Daughter" in any inscription, some scholars doubt whether she was a sibling of Amenhotep I.[11]
Dates and length of reign
In Amenhotep I's ninth regnal year, a
Manetho's Epitome states that Amenhotep I ruled Egypt for twenty years and seven months or twenty-one years, depending on the source.[15] While Amenhotep I's highest attested regnal year is only his Year 10, Manetho's statement is confirmed by a passage in the tomb autobiography of a magician named Amenemhet. This explicitly states that he served under Amenhotep I for 21 years.[16] Thus, in the high chronology, Amenhotep I is given a reign from around 1546 to 1526 BC and, in the low chronology, from around 1526 to 1506 BC or 1525 to 1504 BC,[17] though individual scholars may ascribe dates to his reign that vary from these by a few years.
Foreign policy
Amenhotep I's
A single reference in the tomb of Ahmose Pen-Nekhebet indicates another campaign in Iamu in the land of Kehek.[20] Unfortunately, the location of Kehek is unknown. It was long believed that Kehek was a reference to the Libyan tribe, Qeheq, and thus it was postulated that invaders from Libya took advantage of the death of Ahmose to move into the western Nile Delta.[21] Unfortunately for this theory, the Qeheq people only appeared in later times, and Kehek's identity remains unknown. Nubia is a possibility, since Amenhotep did campaign there, and the western desert and the oases have also been suggested, since these seem to have fallen under Egyptian control once again.[20]
Egypt had lost the western desert and the oases during the Second Intermediate Period, and during the revolt against the Hyksos, Kamose thought it necessary to garrison them.[22] It is uncertain when they were fully retaken, but on one stele, the title "Prince-Governor of the oases" was used,[23] which means that Amenhotep's reign forms the terminus ante quem for the return of Egyptian rule.[22]
There are no recorded campaigns in Syro-Palestine during Amenhotep I's reign. However, according to the Tombos Stela of his successor, Thutmose I, when Thutmose led a campaign into Asia all the way to the Euphrates, he found no one who fought against him.[24] If Thutmose did not lead a campaign which has not been recorded into Asia before this recorded one, it would mean that the preceding pharaoh would have had to pacify Syria instead,[25] which would indicate a possible Asiatic campaign of Amenhotep I. Two references to the Levant potentially written during his reign might be contemporary witnesses to such a campaign. One of the candidates for Amenhotep's tomb contains a reference to Qedmi, which is somewhere in Canaan or the Transjordan, and Amenemhet's tomb contains a hostile reference to Mitanni.[26] However, neither of these references necessarily refer to campaigning, nor do they even necessarily date to Amenhotep's reign. The location of Amenhotep's tomb is not certain, and Amenemhet lived to serve under multiple kings who are known to have attacked Mitanni.[26] Records from Amenhotep's reign are simply altogether too scant and too vague to reach a conclusion about any Syrian campaign.
Cultural and intellectual developments
Large numbers of statues of Amenhotep have been found, but they are mostly from the
It was probably Amenhotep I who founded the artisans village at Deir el-Medina, whose inhabitants were responsible for much of the art which filled the tombs in the Theban Necropolis for the following generations of New Kingdom rulers and nobles.[11] The earliest name found there is that of Thutmose I, however Amenhotep was clearly an important figure to the city's workmen since he and his mother were both its patron deities.[30]
Amenhotep's reign saw literary developments. The
It appears that during Amenhotep I's reign the first water clock was invented.[32] Amenhotep's court astronomer Amenemheb took credit for creating this device in his tomb biography, although the oldest surviving mechanism dates to the reign of Amenhotep III.[33] This invention was of great benefit for timekeeping, because the Egyptian hour was not a fixed amount of time, but was measured as 1/12 of the night.[33] When the nights were shorter in the summer, these waterclocks could be adjusted to measure the shorter hours accurately.[33]
Building projects
Amenhotep began or continued a number of building projects at temple sites in Upper Egypt but most of the structures he built were later dismantled or obliterated by his successors. From written sources it is known that he commissioned the architect
Mortuary complex
Amenhotep I was the first king of Egypt to separate his mortuary temple from his tomb, probably in an attempt to keep his tomb safe from robbers. This temple was sited at the north end of
Tomb and burial
The original location of Amenhotep's tomb has not been securely identified. A report on the security of royal tombs in the Theban Necropolis commissioned during the troubled reign of
Mummy
Sometime during the 20th or 21st Dynasty, Amenhotep's original tomb was either robbed or deemed insecure and emptied and his body was moved for safety, probably more than once. It was found in the
In April 2021 his mummy was moved to National Museum of Egyptian Civilization along with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed the Pharaohs' Golden Parade.[42]
CT scan
The X-ray examinations of the mummy of King Amenhotep I failed to provide consistent data or detailed information on the mummy. In the plain x-ray examination, the three-dimensional (3D) information of the mummy is projected onto a two-dimensional X-ray film. The result is the superimposition of objects and bones which makes mummy characterization less satisfactory.
Succession and legacy
Amenhotep I is thought to have had only one child, a son who died in infancy, although some sources indicate he had no children.[10] Amenhotep I was succeeded by Thutmose I, apparently a senior military figure. It is unclear if there was any blood relationship between the two, although it has been suggested that Thutmose I was a son of Amenhotep I's probable uncle Ahmose Sipairi.[44] Amenhotep may have appointed Thutmose I as coregent before his own death as Thutmose I's name appears next to Amenhotep's on a divine barque found by archeologists in the fill of the third pylon at Karnak.[23] However, most scholars consider that this is only evidence of Thutmose associating himself with his royal predecessor.[11] One text has also been interpreted to mean that Amenhotep appointed his infant son as coregent, who then predeceased him.[36] However, the scholarly consensus is that there is too little evidence for either coregency.
Funerary cult
Amenhotep was deified upon his death and made the patron deity of the village which he opened at
Further light is shed upon Amenhotep's funerary cult by multiple documents which appear to detail the rituals dedicated to Amenhotep.[48] Three papyri from the time of Ramesses II record the liturgy used by the priests, and reliefs at Karnak and Medinet Habu illustrate select rites and spells.[48] The bulk of the rituals concern preparing for and conducting the daily offerings of libations for the idol, including a recitation of a ḥtp-dỉ-nsw formula, and purifying and sealing the shrine at the end of the day.[49] The remainder of the rites concern how to conduct various feasts throughout the year.[50] In these cases, Amenhotep's idol or a priest representing him is actually officiating the worship of Amun instead of being worshipped himself, which was not a typical cultic practice in ancient Egypt.[51]
See also
Citations
- ^ Maspero 1910, p. 8.
- ^ a b Manetho - translated by W.G. Waddell, Loeb Classical Library, 1940, p.109
- ^ a b c d Leprohon 2013, p. 96.
- ^ Clayton 1994, p. 100.
- ^ "Amenhotep III or Amenhotpe III". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 24 September 2014.
- ^ "Amenophis III". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 24 September 2014.
- ^ a b c Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 126.
- ^ "Amenhotep I". British Museum. Retrieved 2007-05-20.[permanent dead link]
- ^ a b c d e f g h Shaw & Nicholson 1995, p. 28.
- ^ a b Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 127.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bleiberg 2001, p. 71.
- ^ a b c Grimal 1992, p. 190.
- ^ a b c d e Grimal 1992, p. 202.
- ^ Helck, Otto & Drenkhahn 1975, p. 969.
- ^ Fingerson, Manetho's King List.
- ^ Redford 1966, p. 144.
- ^ Beckerath 1997, p. 189.
- ^ Breasted 1906, pp. 17–18.
- ^ Breasted 1906, p. 18.
- ^ a b James 1965, p. 310.
- ^ Steindorff & Seele 1942, p. 33.
- ^ a b James 1965, p. 311.
- ^ a b c d e Grimal 1992, p. 203.
- ^ Breasted 1906, p. 30.
- ^ Breasted 1906, p. 28.
- ^ a b James 1965, p. 309.
- ^ a b Freed 2001, p. 133.
- ^ Aldred 1980, p. 147.
- ^ Ashton & Spanel 2001, p. 58.
- ^ Bryan 2000, p. 224.
- ^ a b c d Grimal 1992, p. 206.
- ^ Helck 1975, pp. 111–112.
- ^ a b c West 1973, p. 63.
- ^ Breasted 1906, p. 19.
- ^ Breasted 1906, p. 20.
- ^ a b Wente 1975, p. 271.
- ^ a b Bryan 2000, p. 226.
- ^ a b Dodson 1990, p. 42.
- ^ Dodson 1990, p. 43.
- ^ Aston 2015, p. 35.
- ^ Shaw 2003, p. 181.
- ^ Parisse, Emmanuel (5 April 2021). "22 Ancient Pharaohs Have Been Carried Across Cairo in an Epic 'Golden Parade'". ScienceAlert. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
- ^ a b Saleem & Hawass 2021.
- ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 129.
- ^ Grimal 1992, p. 201.
- ^ Kruchten 2001, p. 610.
- ^ a b c d e Redford 1966, p. 115.
- ^ a b Nelson 1949a, p. 204.
- ^ Nelson 1949a, p. 230.
- ^ Nelson 1949a, p. 232.
- ^ Nelson 1949b, p. 344.
References
Print sources
- Aldred, Cyril (1980). Egyptian Art In The Days Of The Pharaohs, 3100-320 B.C. (1986 ed.). London: Thames and Hudson. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
- Ashton, Sally; Spanel, Donald B. (2001). "Portraiture". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Vol. 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 55–59. ISBN 0-19-513823-6.
- Aston, David A (2015). Szafrański, Z. E. (ed.). "TT358, TT320 and KV39. Three Early Eighteenth Dynasty Queen's Tombs in the Vicinity of Deir el-Bahari" (PDF). Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean: Special Studies: Deir el-Bahari Studies. 24 (2): 15–42. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
- ISBN 978-3-80532-310-9.
- ISBN 0-19-513821-X.
- Borchardt, Ludwig (1920). Die Altägyptische Zeitmessung (Die Geschichte der Zeitmessung und der Uhren). Vol. I. Berlin and Leipzig: W. de Gruyter & Co.
- Breasted, James Henry (1906). Ancient Records of Egypt. Vol. II: The Eighteenth Dynasty. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
- Bryan, Betsy M. (2000). "The 18th Dynasty Before the Amarna Period". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 218–271.
- Clayton, Peter A. (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs (2006 ed.). London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. ISBN 0-500-05074-0.
- Dodson, Aidan (1990). "Amenhotep I and Deir el-Bahri". Journal of the Ancient Chronology Forum. 3: 42–44. Retrieved 5 April 2024.
- Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt (2010 paperback ed.). London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28857-3.
- Freed, Rita E (2001). "Art". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 127–136.
- Grimal, Nicolas (1992) [1988]. A History of Ancient Egypt. Translated by Shaw, Ian. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19396-0.
- Harris, James E.; Wente, Edward F., eds. (1980). An X-ray Atlas of the Royal Mummies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 207–208. ISBN 0226317455.
- Helck, Wolfgang (1975). Historisch-biographische Texte der 2. Zwischenzeit und neue Texte der 18. Dynastie (in German). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
- Helck, Wolfgang; Otto, Eberhard; Drenkhahn, Rosmarie, eds. (1975). Lexikon der Ägyptologie (in German). Vol. I. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
- James, T. G. H. (1965). "Egypt: From the Expulsion of the Hyksos to Amenophis I". In Edwards, I. E. S.; Gadd, C. J.; Hammond, N. G. L.; Solberger, E. (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 2, part 1: The Middle East and the Aegean Region, c.1800-1380 BC. Cambridge University Press.
- Kruchten, Jean Marie (2001). "Oracles". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 609–612.
- Leprohon, Ronald J. (2013). The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-58983-736-2. Retrieved 18 October 2022.
- Lilyquist, Christine (1981). "Egyptian Art". Notable Acquisitions 1980-81. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 9–10. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
- Maspero, Gaston (1910). Egypt: Ancient Sites and Modern Scenes. Translated by Lee, Elizabeth. London; Leipsic: T. Fisher Unwin.
- Nelson, Harold H. (1949a). "Certain Reliefs at Karnak and Medinet Habu and the Ritual of Amenophis I". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 8 (3): 201–232. ISSN 0022-2968.
- Nelson, Harold H. (1949b). "Certain Reliefs at Karnak and Medinet Habu and the Ritual of Amenophis I-(Concluded)". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 8 (4): 310–345. ISSN 0022-2968.
- ISSN 0022-2968.
- PMID 35028305.
- ISBN 978-0-19-511678-6. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
- Shaw, Ian; Nicholson, Paul (1995). The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. London: The British Museum Press. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
- Steindorff, George; Seele, Keith (1942). When Egypt Ruled the East. Chicago: University of Chicago. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
- ISSN 0022-2968.
- West, Stephanie (1973). "Cultural Interchange over a Water-Clock". The Classical Quarterly. 23 (1): 61–64. ISSN 0009-8388.
External links
- Amenhotep I - The British Museum Accessed June 10, 2010
- Andrews, Mark. "KV 39, The Tomb of Amenhotep I?". InterCity Oz, Inc. Archived from the original on 8 June 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-01.
- Fingerson, R. Manetho's King List
- Hatshepsut: from Queen to Pharaoh, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Amenhotep I (see index)
- Routledge, B. (10 September 2007) - Statue of Amenhotep I circa 1510 BC Thebes, National Education Network, Accessed February 14, 2017
- Peacock, L. - Amenhotep I temple at Deir el-Medina Accessed January 6, 2021
- Saleem, Sahar N., Hawass Zahi. Digital Unwrapping of the Mummy of King Amenhotep I (1525–1504 BC) Using CT, 28 Dec. 2021; see also BBC'c article on this unwrapping: "Egyptian pharaoh's mummy digitally unwrapped for first time"[1]