Ancient North Eurasian

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Ancient North Eurasian
Mal'ta–Buret' culture ivory figurines (c. 24,000 BP-c. 15,000 BP). Some of the figurines wear hooded overalls with decorative stripes.[1] [2]
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Approximate location of the Ancient North Eurasians c. 24,000~16,000 BP.[3][4][5]

In

Ancient East Eurasian' ancestry is represented by a lineage closer to the Tianyuan man (c. 40,000 BP).[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][a][18]

Around 20,000 to 25,000 years ago, a branch of Ancient North Eurasian people mixed with

Ancient East Asians, which led to the emergence of Ancestral Native American, Ancient Beringian and Ancient Paleo-Siberian populations. It is unknown exactly where this population admixture took place, and two opposing theories have put forth different migratory scenarios that united the Ancient North Eurasians with ancient East Asian populations.[19]

ANE ancestry has spread throughout Eurasia and the Americas in various migrations since the Upper Paleolithic, and more than half of the world's population today derives between 5 and 42% of their genomes from the Ancient North Eurasians.[20] Significant ANE ancestry can be found in Native Americans, as well as in regions of northern Europe, South Asia, Central Asia, and Siberia. It has been suggested that their mythology may have featured narratives shared by both Indo-European and some Native American cultures, such as the existence of a metaphysical world tree and a fable in which a dog guards the path to the afterlife.[21]

Genetic studies

Definition

The ANE lineage, also known as Paleolithic Siberians, is defined by association with the "

Mal'ta boy" (MA-1), the remains of an individual who lived during the Last Glacial Maximum, 24,000 years ago in central Siberia, discovered in the 1920s. Together with the Yana Rhinoceros Horn Site samples, and Afontova Gora individuals, they are collectively referred to as 'Ancient North Siberians', although 'Ancient North Eurasian' is also used as collective name for both MA-1 and Yana remains.[22][23]

Mal'ta boy (MA-1), dated 24,000 BP, with tomb artifacts, Hermitage Museum (Hall 11),[24] Saint-Petersburg.[25]

The Ancient North Eurasians represent a Paleolithic Siberian cluster, more closely related to European hunter-gatherers than East Asian populations.[17][26][27] It is suggested that the ANE ancestry found among modern human populations was largely contributed from a population linked to Afontova Gora (AG2/3), rather than Malta (MA1) or Yana.[28]

Formation

Human principial component analysis (PCA) with ancient human genomes projected on top.[29]
A qpGraph model by Maier et al. 2023, showing the possible formation of Ancient North Siberians/Eurasians (ANS/ANE) and their subsequent contribution to the Ancient Paleo-Siberians and Native Americans.[30]

The formation of the Ancient North Eurasian/Siberian gene pool likely occurred very early by the

Northern China, suggesting contact between these ancestral lineages in Northeastern Siberia.[31][27][15][32][18]

The ANE/ANS-associated samples from the

Sunghir, or the Peștera Muierii woman,[35] while their East Eurasian-related component can be associated with ancestry found among a population related to the Paleolithic Tianyuan man, who is basal to contemporary East/Southeast Asians.[36][37][38][39][17][40][12][13][14]

A different but geographically close specimen, known as the

Northern Mongolia was found to display a complex relation to the Yana individuals. While the Yana individuals derived between 25–33% of their ancestry from a Tianyuan-like source, the Salkhit individual derived around 25% ancestry from the Yana lineage and 75% from the Tianyuan lineage, suggesting bi-directional geneflow between Ancient West and East Eurasian populations in Northeastern Siberia.[30][27][16]

Studies on the Ancient North Eurasians

Lipson and Reich (2017) modeled the Mal'ta sample to be derived from a West Eurasian source (82%), with additional admixture from a lineage related to East Asians (18%), while also noting the possibility for a reversed geneflow from Mal'ta into East Asians, which however had less support with the available data.

Kostenki-14, contributing around 68% ancestry, and from a lineage contemporary to the 'Basal-East Asian' Tianyuan man, contributing around 32% ancestry, while finding no evidence for a reversed geneflow from ANE into Tianyuan or modern East Asians.[41][42] Mao et al. 2021 models both Yana and Afontova Gora remains with around 73% West Eurasian and 27% East Eurasian ancestry.[43] Sikora et al. 2019 analyzed the genetic remains of the Yana Rhinoceros Horn Site and found them to be closely related to the Ancient North Eurasians. The collectively named both populations as Ancient North Siberian. They modeled the ANE/ANS to derived around 78% West Eurasian ancestry and 22% East Eurasian ancestry.[44] Sikora et al. also notes that the Ancient North Eurasians (Malta and Afontova Gora individuals) are unlikely to be direct descendants of the 'Ancient North Siberian' Yana population; rather, the study argues, both are sister lineages sharing a common ancestor. According to Sikora et al., the Malta sample may additionally also have received some 'early Caucasus hunter-gatherer' geneflow (c. 11%).[44] This scenario is questioned by Maier et al. 2023, who state that this conclusion is contradicted by other published articles, and that the direction of gene flow as well as observed affinity between ANE and CHG populations cannot be demonstrated by analysis of admixture graphs, but need further investigation.[45] By using a newly developed version of ADMIXTOOLS, they estimate around 76% West Eurasian ancestry and 24% East Eurasian ancestry for both the Yana and Mal'ta remains of the Ancient North Eurasian lineage.[33] Zhang et al. 2023 summarized that the Ancient North Siberians (Yana remains) are best described to derive 71% ancestry from a West Eurasian lineage and 29% ancestry from an East Eurasian lineage. The Yana remains are closely related to the Mal'ta and Afontova Gora remains, but not identical with them.[18]

Grebenyuk et al. argues that the 'Ancient North Eurasians' descended from a population represented by the 'Ancient North Siberian' Yana remains, which were "Early Upper Paleolithic tribes of hunters" and linked to similar groups associated with contemporaneous Southern Siberian sites. These communities of Southern Siberian and Central Asian hunters belonged to one of the earliest migration waves of the anatomically modern humans into Siberia. The authors summarized that "the initial peopling of Northeastern Asia by the anatomically modern humans could have happened both from West to East and from South to North".[31]

Distribution

Mal'ta figurines" with facial features, and 3D rendering.[46]

By c. 32kya, populations carrying ANE-related ancestry were probably widely distributed across northeast Eurasia. They may have expanded as far as Alaska and the Yukon, but were forced to abandon high latitude regions following the onset of harsher climatic conditions that came with the Last Glacial Maximum.[47]

Populations genetically similar to MA-1 and Afontova Gora were an important genetic contributor to

South Asians, and some East Asian groups, in order of significance.[48]
Lazaridis et al. (2016:10) note "a cline of ANE ancestry across the east-west extent of Eurasia". A 2016 study found that the global maximum of ANE ancestry occurs in modern-day Kets, Mansi, Native Americans, and Selkups.[6][48]

Deer tooth pendant of an ANE woman, from Denisova Cave, dated circa 24,700 years BP.[49]

The ancient Bronze-age-steppe

Afanasevo cultures were found to have a significant ANE-like component at c. 25–50% via their EHG ancestry.[50][51] According to Moreno-Mayar et al. 2018 between 14% and 38% of Native American ancestry may originate from gene flow from the Mal'ta–Buret' (ANE) population. This difference is caused by the penetration of posterior "Neo-Siberian" migrations into the Americas, with the lowest percentages of ANE ancestry found in Inuit and Alaskan Natives, as these groups are the result of migrations into the Americas roughly 5,000 years ago.[52] Estimates for ANE ancestry among first wave Native Americans show higher percentages,[53] such as 42% for those belonging to the Andean region in South America.[53] The other gene flow in Native Americans (the remainder of their ancestry) was of an East Asian-related origin, specifically diverged from other East Asians c. 30,000 years ago.[38] Gene sequencing of another south-central Siberian people (Afontova Gora-2) dating to approximately 17,000 years ago, revealed similar autosomal genetic signatures to that of Mal'ta boy-1, suggesting that the region was continuously occupied by humans throughout the Last Glacial Maximum.[38] Vallini et al. 2024 notes that the "position of Native Americans suggests a primarily East Asian ancestry, with a smaller contribution from palaeolithic West Eurasian populations".[54]

Genomic studies also indicate that the ANE component was brought to Western Europe by people related to the

Eastern European Hunter-Gatherers, which resulted in populations such as Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers. [55] Western Hunter-Gatherers of the Villabruna cluster also carried the Y-haplogroup R1b, derived from the Ancient North Eurasian haplogroup R*, indicating "an early link between Europe and the western edge of the Steppe Belt of Eurasia."[56]

A deer tooth pendant impregnated with the genetic material of an ANE woman was found in the Denisova Cave, and dated to circa 24,700 years before present. She is closely related to Mal'ta and Afontova Gora specimens, found further east.[49]

An early Neolithic Central Asian specimen (Tutkaul1) from Tajikistan was found to be primarily derived from Ancient North Eurasians with some additional Neolithic Iranian-related inputs. The sample is closely related to Afontova Gora 3 (AG3) and Mal’ta 1, as well as to the West Siberian hunter-gatherers (Tyumen and Sosnoviy). While the sample also displays affinity for Eastern hunter-gatherers (EHGs), AG3 was found to be closer to EHGs than Tutkaul1, who instead may be a good proxy for ANE-related ancestry among ancient populations from the Iran and the Turan region.[57]

The Ancient Tianyuan Man and modern East/Southeast Asian populations were found to lack Upper Paleolithic Western Eurasian or ANE-related admixture, suggesting "resistance of those groups to the incoming UP population movements", or alternatively a subsequent reexpansion from a genetically East Asian-like population reservoir.[27]

Groups partially derived from the Ancient North Eurasians

Native American contribution

Main article: Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The "Ancient North Eurasian" (ANE) network, consisted of several Paleolithic Siberian samples and contributed ancestry towards a wide variety of populations across Eurasia.
The map shows the origin of the first major wave of Native Americans. Involved are the ANE (Ancestral Northern Eurasian, which are related to Europeans) and the NEA (Northeast Asians, which are an East Asian-related people). The admixture happened somewhere in Northeast Siberia.[58]

According to Jennifer Raff, the Ancient North Eurasian population mixed with a daughter population of ancient East Asians, who they encountered around 25,000 years ago, which lead to the emergence of Native American ancestral populations. However, the exact location where the admixture took place is unknown, and the migratory movements that united the two populations are a matter of debate.[19]

One theory supposes that Ancient North Eurasians migrated south to

Southern Siberia, where they would have encountered and mixed with ancient East Asians. Genetic evidence from Lake Baikal in Mongolia supports this area as the location where the admixture took place.[59]

However, a third theory, the "Beringian standstill hypothesis", suggests that East Asians instead migrated north to Northeastern Siberia, where they mixed with ANE, and later diverged in Beringia, where distinct Native American lineages formed. This theory is supported by

paternal DNA evidence, which may reflect different population histories for paternal and maternal lineages in Native Americans, which is not uncommon and has been observed in other populations.[62]

The descendants of admixture between ANE and ancient East Asians include

Ancient Paleo-Siberians, populations represented by the Late Upper Paeolithic Lake Baikal Ust'Kyakhta-3 (UKY) 14,050-13,770 BP. They carried 30% ANE ancestry and 70% East Asian ancestry.[58]

Jomon people

Jōmon people, the pre-Neolithic population of Japan, mainly derived their ancestry from East Asian lineages, but also received geneflow from the ANE-related "Ancient North Siberians" (represented by samples from the Yana Rhinoceros Horn Site) prior to the migration from the Asian mainland to the Japanese archipelago. Jōmon ancestry is still found among the inhabitants of present-day Japan: most markedly among the Ainu people, who are considered the direct descendants of the Jōmon people, and to a small, but significant degree among the majority of the Japanese population.[65][66]

Siberian and Asian Holocene populations

Altai hunter-gatherer is the name given to Middle Holocene Siberian hunter-gatherers within the

Malta-Buret people.[68]

West Siberian Hunter-Gatherer (WSHG) is a specific archaeogenetic lineage that was first reported by Narasimhan et al. (2019). It can be modeled as 20% EHG, 73% ANE and 6%

Urals dated ca. 5,000 BCE, high-levels of WSHG-like ancestry can be detected in various populations of Central Asia until the Bronze Age. The population of the Botai culture, while probably not directly descended from WSHG, displays a high affinity with the WSHG lineage.[69] The European-Siberian cline defined by Eastern hunter-gatherer-like ancestry streched from Central Europe to Siberia and was already established 10,000 years ago, including the West Siberian hunter-gatherers, all deriving their ancestry primarily from Paleolithic Siberians (ANE).[70]

"Princess of Xiaohe", one of the Tarim mummies, the "best representatives" of Ancient North Eurasians.[71]

Lake Baikal Holocene - Among the Ancient Northeast Asians (ANA) of the Neolithic to Early Bronze Age period, Baikal Eneolithic (Baikal_EN) and Baikal Early Bronze Age (Baikal_EBA) derived 6.4% to 20.1% ancestry from ANE, while the rest of their ancestry was derived from ANA. Fofonovo_EN near by Lake Baikal were mixture of 12-17% ANE ancestry and 83-87% ANA ancestry.[72]

Tarim mummies

A 2021 genetic study on the

Baikal populations).[71]

The Tarim mummies are thus one of the rare

Mal'ta and Afontova Gora populations), despite their distance in time (around 14,000 years).[71] Having survived in a type of "genetic bottleneck" in the Tarim basin where they preserved and perpetuated their ANE ancestry, the Tarim mummies, more than any other ancient populations, can be considered as "the best representatives" of the Ancient North Eurasians.[71]

West Asian populations

Mesolithic Iranian hunter-gatherers and Neolithic Iranian farmers as well as

Kostenki-14; WEC), with the WEC2 component staying in the region of the Iranian Plateau, while the proper WEC component expanded into Europe.[74]

European populations

Further information: Eastern Hunter-Gatherer, Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherer, and Western Steppe Herders

Lazaridis et al. (2014) detected ANE ancestry among modern European populations in proportions up to 20%.

Yamnaya people[50] but not of Western or Central Europeans predating the Corded Ware culture:[76] ANE ancestry was introduced in the European gene pool with the Eastern Hunter-Gatherer (EHG) lineage which derived significant ancestry from the ANE, c. 70%, with the remaining ancestry from a group more closely related to, but distinct from, Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHGs).[48][77][57] It is represented by multiple individuals, such as from Yuzhny Oleny in Karelia, one of Y-haplogroup R1a-M417, dated c. 8.4 kya, the other of Y-haplogroup J, dated c. 7.2 kya; and one individual from Samara, of Y-haplogroup R1b-P297, dated c. 7.6 kya, as well as individuals from Sidelkino and Popovo. After the end of the Last Glacial Maximum, the Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHG) and EHG lineages merged in Eastern Europe, accounting for early presence of ANE-derived ancestry in Mesolithic Europe. Evidence suggests that as Ancient North Eurasians migrated westward from Eastern Siberia, they absorbed Western Hunter-Gatherers and other West Eurasian populations as well.[78][57]

Villalba-Mouco et al. 2023 confirmed the strong affinity between the Eastern European Hunter-Gatherers (EHG) to the Ancient North Eurasians, and also found a low affinity to the Tianyuan man, explained by them having received significant amounts of ANE ancestry.[79]

Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherer (SHG) is represented by several individuals buried at Motala, Sweden ca. 6000 BC. They were descended from Western Hunter-Gatherers who initially settled Scandinavia from the south, and received later admixture from EHG who entered Scandinavia from the north through the coast of Norway.[80][50][81][55][82]

Western Steppe Herders (WSH) is the name given to a distinct ancestral component that represents descent closely related to the Yamnaya culture of the Pontic–Caspian steppe.[c] This ancestry is often referred to as Yamnaya ancestry or Steppe ancestry, and was formed from EHG and CHG (Caucasus hunter-gatherer) in about equal proportions.[37]

Phenotype prediction

Genomic studies by Raghavan et al. (2014) and Fu et al. (2016) suggested that Mal'ta boy may have had brown eyes, and relatively dark hair and dark skin,[84][85] while cautioning that this analysis was based on an extremely low coverage of DNA that might not give an accurate prediction of pigmentation.[86] Mathieson, et al. (2018) could not determine if Mal'ta 1 boy had the derived allele associated with blond hair in ANE descendants, as they could obtain no coverage for this SNP.[87]

Anthropologic research

One of the Tarim mummies, a "Beauty of Loulan" dated c. 2000 BCE

Kozintsev (2020) argues that the historical Southern Siberian

Caucasoids.[51]

Ancient North Eurasians.[88]

Zhang et al. (2021) proposed that the 'Western' like features of the earlier Tarim mummies could be attributed to their Ancient North Eurasian ancestry.[89] Previous craniometric analyses on the early Tarim mummies found that they formed their own cluster, and clustered with neither European-related Steppe pastoralists of the Andronovo and Afanasievo cultures, nor with inhabitants of the Western Asian BMAC culture, nor with East Asian populations further east, but displayed an affinity for two specimens from the Harappan site of the Indus Valley Civilisation.[90]

Evolution of blond hair

Blond hair is associated with a

Mal'ta boy lacks the sequence coverage to make this determination).[96] The allele then appears later in ANE-derived Eastern Hunter-Gatherer (EHG) populations at Samara, Motala and Ukraine, circa 10,000 BP, and then in populations with Steppe ancestry.[87] Mathieson, et al. (2018) thus argued that this allele originated in the Ancient North Eurasian population, before spreading to western Eurasia.[87]

Geneticist

Yamnayas, were responsible for transmitting this gene to Europeans.[91] The gene was also found among the Tarim mummies.[98]

The mutation for blond hair is thought to have originated among the Afontova Gora population of the Ancient North Eurasian (ANE) cline of south-central Siberia

Comparative mythology

Mal'ta–Buret' culture centrally perforated ivory plaques with abstract circles, and three snakes[1] According to archeologist Don Hitchcock "the snake is rare in northern hemisphere Paleolithic art, presumably because the cold conditions precluded a wide distribution of snakes. In addition, it can be seen that the snakes have very broad heads, as though they belong to the Cobra group - yet Cobras are now known only in southern asian localities." It has yet to be clarrified how the creators of these ivory plaques know snakes, or if there are other possible interpretations for these.[99]

Since the term 'Ancient North Eurasian' refers to a genetic bridge of connected mating networks, scholars of comparative mythology have argued that they probably shared myths and beliefs that could be reconstructed via the comparison of stories attested within cultures that were not in contact for millennia and stretched from the Pontic–Caspian steppe to the American continent.[21]

The

Sarvarā, and Garmr. In Zoroastrianism, two four-eyed dogs guard the bridge to the afterlife called Chinvat Bridge. Anthony and Brown note that it might be one of the oldest mythemes recoverable through comparative mythology.[21]

A second canid-related series of beliefs, myths and rituals connected dogs with healing rather than death. For instance, Ancient Near Eastern and Turkic-Kipchaq myths are prone to associate dogs with healing and generally categorised dogs as impure. A similar myth-pattern is assumed for the Eneolithic site of Botai in Kazakhstan, dated to 3500 BC, which might represent the dog as absorber of illness and guardian of the household against disease and evil. In Mesopotamia, the goddess Nintinugga, associated with healing, was accompanied or symbolized by dogs. Similar absorbent-puppy healing and sacrifice rituals were practiced in Greece and Italy, among the Hittites, again possibly influenced by Near Eastern traditions.[21]

See also

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Notes

  1. ^ Lipson & Reich (2017) model the ANE as 18% East Eurasian and the remainder West Eurasian. Posth et al. 2018 models the Mal'ta boy as 16% East Eurasian and remainder West Eurasian. Sikora et al. (2019) model the Yana individuals as 22% East Eurasian and the remainder West Eurasian ("Using admixture graphs and outgroup-based estimation of mixture proportions, we find that ANS can be modelled as early West Eurasian with an approximately 22% contribution from early East Asians"). Massilani et al. (2020): "In agreement with previous results (10), the Yana individuals are estimated to have about one-third of their ancestry from early East Eurasians and the remaining two-thirds from the early West Eurasians."Vallini et al. (2022) model Yana as 50% West Eurasian and 50% East Eurasian. Maier et al. (2023) modeled the ANE/ANS as around 25% East Eurasian and 75% West Eurasian.
  2. ^ Lipson & Reich (2017) model the ANA as 18% East Eurasian and the remainder West Eurasian. Posth et al. 2018 models the Mal'ta boy as 16% East Eurasian and remainder West Eurasian. Sikora et al. (2019) model the Yana individuals as 22% East Eurasian and the remainder West Eurasian ("Using admixture graphs and outgroup-based estimation of mixture proportions, we find that ANS can be modelled as early West Eurasian with an approximately 22% contribution from early East Asians"). Massilani et al. (2020): "In agreement with previous results (10), the Yana individuals are estimated to have about one-third of their ancestry from early East Eurasians and the remaining two-thirds from the early West Eurasians." Vallini et al. (2022) model Yana as 50% West Eurasian and 50% East Eurasian. Maier et al. (2023) modeled the ANE/ANS as around 25% East Eurasian and 75% West Eurasian.
  3. ^ "Recent paleogenomic studies have shown that migrations of Western steppe herders (WSH) beginning in the Eneolithic (ca. 3300–2700 BCE) profoundly transformed the genes and cultures of Europe and central Asia... The migration of these Western steppe herders (WSH), with the Yamnaya horizon (ca. 3300–2700 BCE) as their earliest representative, contributed not only to the European Corded Ware culture (ca. 2500–2200 BCE) but also to steppe cultures located between the Caspian Sea and the Altai-Sayan mountain region, such as the Afanasievo (ca. 3300–2500 BCE) and later Sintashta (2100–1800 BCE) and Andronovo (1800–1300 BCE) cultures."[83]

Bibliography

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