Art of Champa
The
This artistic legacy has been decimated by neglect, war, and vandalism. Much of the damage has been done in the 20th century. Some French scholars such as
The largest collection of Cham art is on exhibit at the
Forms of visual art
The remnants of classical Cham art extant today consist mainly in temples of brick, sandstone sculptures in the round, and sandstone sculptures in high and low relief. A few bronze sculptures and decorative items made of metal remain as well. There are no works of marble or other higher quality stone. Likewise there are no paintings or sketches. The people of Champa wrote, and perhaps also sketched, on leaves, which have not withstood the hot and humid climate of coastal Vietnam. Items made of perishable materials, such as wood, for the most part have not survived.[citation needed]
Metal statues and jewelry
The remaining works of art made of metal include bronze statues of the
We have abundant textual evidence of much classical Cham art that once existed that has been lost to the ravages of time and the depredations of human vandals, looters, and conquerors. For example, the early 14th-century Chinese historian
The written sources, including the Chinese books of history and the Cham inscriptions, also report on some of the catastrophic events, primarily acts of war, that led to the loss of Cham art. In the second quarter of the 5th century AD, according to the historian Ma Duanlin, a Chinese general named Yuen Kan sacked the capital of Champa, making off with many "rare and precious objects", including "tens of thousands of pounds of gold in ingots coming from statues which he had smelted." Similarly, at the beginning of the 7th century a marauding Chinese general named Liu Fang made off with "eighteen massive tablets of gold" commemorating the 18 previous kings of Champa.[8] It is to be assumed that in the centuries that followed, frequent raids and conquests by Khmer and Vietnamese armies, which led to the eventual destruction of Champa as an independent political entity, likewise resulted in the removal of any portable works of art, including of course any works made of precious metals.[citation needed]
Temples
Unlike the
]Buildings constituting a temple
Typically, a Cham temple complex consisted of several different kinds of buildings.[9]
- The kalan was the brick sanctuary, typically in the form of a tower, used to house the deity.
- The mandapa was an entry hallway contiguous with a sanctuary.
- The kosagrha or "fire-house" was the construction, typically with a saddle-shaped roof, used to house the valuables belonging to the deity or to cook for the deity.
- The gopura was a gate-tower leading into a walled temple complex.
These building types are typical for Hindu temples in general; the classification is valid not only for the architecture of Champa, but also for other architectural traditions of Greater India.[citation needed]
Most significant temples
The culturally most important temples of historical Champa were the temple of Bhadresvara located at Mỹ Sơn near modern Da Nang, and the temple of the goddess known as Bhagavati (her Hindu name) or Yan Po Nagar (her Cham name) located just outside modern Nha Trang.
- The temple of Bhadresvara was the principle religious foundations of northern Champa (known as Campadesa, Campapura or nagara Campa in the inscriptions). Scholars have identified the temple of Bhadresvara, a local incarnation of the universal deity Shiva, with the edifice "A1" at Mỹ Sơn. Though today A1 is in the process of devolving into a pile of rubble, it still existed as a magnificent tower when French scholars described it at the beginning of the 20th century.[10]
- The temple of Yan Po Nagar was the principal religious foundation of southern Champa (or Panduranga, a word that is the basis for the modern name "Phan Rang.") Its buildings date from between the 8th and 13th centuries. The temple remains standing to this day across the Cai River from Nha Trang, and is in relatively good condition.[11]
Sandstone sculptures
The Cham created freestanding sandstone sculptures in the round, as well as high and
The subject-matter of Cham sculpture is drawn mostly from the legends and religion of Indian civilization. Many of the sculptures are representations of particular Hindu and Buddhist deities, most prominently
A few of the sculptures in the art of Champa depart from the Indian subject-matter to reveal something of the life of the historical Cham people. An example are the especially well-executed representations of elephants that serve as decorative details in some pieces: from written sources we know that the Cham relied on elephants for military and other purposes, since they lacked a steady supply of horses. Other sculptures reflect the cultural legacy of
Periods and styles of Cham art
Scholars agree that it is possible to analyze the art of Champa in terms of distinct "styles" typical for various historical periods and different locations. Several have attempted through their study to set down a classification of historical styles. Perhaps the most influential of these attempts are those of the French scholars Philippe Stern (The Art of Champa (formerly Annam) and its Evolution, 1942) and Jean Boisselier (Statuary of Champa, 1963).[13] Summarizing the conclusions of these scholars, art historian Jean-François Hubert has concluded that it is possible to distinguish at least the following styles and sub-styles:[14]
- Mỹ Sơn E1 (7th to 8th century)
- Dong Duong (9th to 10th century)
- Mỹ Sơn A1 (10th century)
- Khuong My (first half of 10th century)
- Trà Kiệu (second half of 10th century)
- Chanh Lo (end of 10th century to mid-11th century)
- Thap Mam (11th to 14th century)
Each style is named after a place in Vietnam at which works exemplative of that style have been found.
Mỹ Sơn E1 Style
The ruins at
Perhaps the most famous work of the Mỹ Sơn E1 style is a large sandstone pedestal dated from the second half of the 7th century. Originally, the pedestal had a religious function, and was used to support a huge lingam as a symbol for shiva, the primary deity in Cham religion. The pedestal itself is decorated with relief carvings featuring scenes from the lives of ascetics: ascetics playing various musical instrument, an ascetic preaching to animals, an ascetic receiving a massage. To the Cham, the pedestal symbolized Mount Kailasa, the mythological abode of shiva which also accommodated numerous forest- and cave-dwelling ascetics, just as the lingam it supported represented the god himself.[16]
Another important work of the Mỹ Sơn E1 style is the unfinished sandstone
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A detail from the Mỹ Sơn E1 pedestal shows a flutist playing his instrument.
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Another detail shows an ascetic holding a flywhisk and giving instruction to a disciple.
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This image of a male dancer is on the riser of a step leading onto the Mỹ Sơn E1 pedestal.
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Ruined E1 buildings undergoing reconstruction through anastylosis.
Dong Duong Style
In 875, the Cham king
The Dong Duong style of sculpture has been described as a highly original style of "artistic extremism", "with exaggerated, almost excessively stylized features."
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A sandstone guardiandvarapalais shown stomping on a bull, who in turn disgorges a small warrior.
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A 9th-century sandstone statue showsAmitabhaseated in her hair above the forehead.
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This seated figure may be akalahead.
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This statue of a kneeling fat man wearing a mukuta and a mustache is from the 9th century.
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The ruins of Đồng Dương (Indrapura)
Mỹ Sơn A1 Style
The art of the Mỹ Sơn A1 style belongs to the 10th and 11th centuries, a period of
As to the sculpture of the Mỹ Sơn A1 style, it is known as being light and graceful, in contrast with the more severe style of Dong Duong. According to Guillon, "It is an art of dance and movement, of grace, and of faces which sometimes wear a slight, almost ironic style, as though surprised by their own beauty." Indeed, dancers were a favorite motif of the Mỹ Sơn A1 sculptors. The style is also known for its fine relief images of real and mythical animals such as elephants, lions and garudas.[26]
The Mỹ Sơn A1 style encompasses not only works of art found at Mỹ Sơn, but also works found at Khuong My and Trà Kiệu, though the latter are sometimes treated as representing distinct styles. The works of Khuong My in particular are frequently treated as transitional between the styles of Dong Duong and Mỹ Sơn A1.[27] Likewise, works found at Chanh Lo are sometimes treated as belonging to the Mỹ Sơn A1 style and sometimes treated as transitional between the Mỹ Sơn A1 and Thap Mam styles.[28]
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A kosagrha of Mỹ Sơn A1 style.
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Carvings at the Mỹ Sơn A1 temple.
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The great temple "A1" by King Sambhuvarman before its destruction during the Vietnam War.
Khuong My Style
In the village of Khuong My in the Vietnamese province of
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Khuong My temple.
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Brickwork decorations at Khuong My.
Trà Kiệu Style
Although the Cham monuments at
The
The Dancers' Pedestal, likewise, is regarded as a masterpiece. The purpose and function of the pedestal, which has the shape of a corner piece, remain obscure. Each side of the corner is graced by a dancing
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The Trà Kiệu pedestal of the 10th century supports a massive lingam and ablutionary cistern.
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A row ofapsaras, or celestial nymphs, is depicted on the base of the Trà Kiệu Pedestal.
Thap Mam Style
After the 10th century, Cham art went into gradual decline. Both architecture, as exemplified by the temples of Po Nagar and Po Klong Garai, and sculpture became more stereotyped and less original. Only the sculptures of mythical animals, such as the makara or the garuda, could rival their counterparts of the earlier styles.[33]
The Thap Mam Style of the 11th through the 14th centuries is named for an archaeological site in
One of the most original motifs of the Thap Mam period was the sculpting in stone of a row of female breasts around the base of a pedestal. The motif first emerged in the 10th century (the Trà Kiệu Pedestal at one point had such a row of breasts) and became characteristic of the Thap Mam Style. It appears to have no counterpart in the art of other Southeast Asian countries.[35] Some scholars have identified this theme with figure of Uroja ("breasts"), the mythical ancestor of an 11th-century dynasty at Mỹ Sơn, and claim a connection between this Uroja and the goddess venerated at Po Nagar.[36]
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A 13th-century sculpture fromBình Định shows Garudadevouring a serpent.
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This 12th-century leonine atlas is of the Thap Mam style.
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The leonine atlas at the corner of this pedestal is flanked by rows of female breasts.
See also
- Champa
- Architecture of Cambodia
- Influence of Indian Hindu temple architecture on Southeast Asia
- History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia
References
- Jean Boisselier, La statuaire du Champa. Paris: École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1963.
- Jean Boisselier, "Un Bronze de Tara", in BEFEO 73 (1984), pp. 319–338.
- Huynh Thi Duoc, Cham Sculpture and Indian Mythology. Da Nang, Vietnam: Danang Publishing House, 2007.
- M.L. Finot, "Notes d'Epigraphie: XI. Les inscriptions de My-Son", BEFEO 4:1 (1904), 897-977.
- Emmanuel Guillon, Hindu-Buddhist Art of Vietnam: Treasures from Champa (translated from the French by Tom White). Trumbull, Connecticut: Weatherhill, 1997.
- Marquis D’Hervey de Saint-Denys (editor and translator), Ma-Touan-Lin: Ethnographie des peuples étrangers à la Chine (2 volumes). Geneva: H. Georg, 1883.
- Jean-François Hubert, The Art of Champa (translated from the French by Anna Allanet). USA: Parkstone Press and Confidential Concepts, 2005.
- Lê Thành Khôi, Histoire du Viêt Nam des origines à 1858. Paris: Sudestasie, 1981.
- Ngô Vǎn Doanh, Champa: Ancient Towers. Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, 2006.
- Ngô Vǎn Doanh, My Son Relics. Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, 2005.
- Tran Ky Phuong, Vestiges of Champa Civilization. Hanoi, The Gioi Publishers, 2008.
Footnotes
- ^ "Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram". UNESCO.org. Retrieved 23 October 2012.
- ^ "Advisory body evaluation" (PDF). UNESCO.org. Retrieved 23 October 2012.
- ^ "The Rathas, monolithic [Mamallapuram]". Online Gallery of British Library. Retrieved 23 October 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-470-64580-2. Retrieved 7 February 2013.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.36.
- ^ Boisselier, "Un Bronze de Tara", p.319-320.
- ^ Finot, "Notes d'Epigraphie: XI. Les inscriptions de My-Son."
- ^ Hervey, Ma-Touan-Lin, Volume 2, Chapter entitled "Lin-y." The Chinese recognized a succession of Cham states: first Lin-yi (from the late 2nd century to the 8th century), then Huan-wang (from the 8th to the 10th century), and finally Chen-ching (from the 10th century onward).
- ^ Tran Ky Phuong, Vestiges of Champa Civilization.
- ^ Tran Ky Phuong, Vestiges of Champa Civilization, p.32.
- ^ Tran Ky Phuong, Vestiges of Champa Civilization, p.95 ff.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.31.
- ^ Hubert, The Art of Champa, p.39 ff.
- ^ Hubert, The Art of Champa, pp.33-34.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.33 ff.
- ^ Ngô Vǎn Doanh, Champa: Ancient Towers, p.50ff.; Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.73.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.72.
- ^ Ngô Vǎn Doanh, Champa: Ancient Towers, p.72.
- ^ Ngô Vǎn Doanh, Champa: Ancient Towers, p.73.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.36 ff.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.40.
- ^ a b Hubert, The Art of Champa, p.43.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.81 ff.; Huynh Thi Duoc, Cham Sculpture, p.66 ff.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.41.
- ^ Ngô Vǎn Doanh, Mỹ Sơn Relics, p.140-141.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.128 ff.; Huynh Thi Duoc, Cham Sculpture, pp.55 ff.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.45, 105 f.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.134.
- ^ Ngô Vǎn Doanh, Champa: Ancient Towers, Ch.5: "Khuong My", p.95 ff.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.110 ff.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.110-116.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.120-127.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.54 f.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.57.
- ^ Guillon, Treasures from Champa, p.147 ff.
- ^ Tran Ky Phuong, Vestiges of Champa Civilization, p.146.
External links
- Homepage of Cham Museum in Da Nang, Vietnam.
- Photos of Cham art from collections in the museums of Vietnam.
- Art Treasures of Vietnam-Champa a recent exhibition