Battle of Talas
| |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana | |||||||
Movement into Central Asia: Chinese (Tang army) Turks (Tang army, later Abbasid army) Arabs (Abbasid army) Tibetans (Tibetan army) | |||||||
| |||||||
Belligerents | |||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Strength | |||||||
30,000 Abbasid troops | 10,000 Tang troops | ||||||
20,000 Turkic mercenaries[a][2][3] | |||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
Unknown | Unknown |
The Battle of Talas (
This defeat was seen[
Location
The exact location of the battle has not been confirmed but is believed to be near
Background
The oasis towns on the
In 715, the Tang emperor declined the demand of the Türgesh tribe leader Suluk to be recognized as Khagan, instead offering him the rank of duke within the Tang military. In response, Suluk invaded the Tarim Basin along with the Tibetans, but they were driven out by the cavalry of Ashina Xian.[7] Suluk and his soldiers regularly challenged Umayyad–Tang control of the oasis towns. Before Suluk's death, his soldiers were defeated by the Tang in 736 and by the Caliphate in 737.[8] At the same time, Türgesh tribes established metal industries in Tang-controlled Fergana Valley, an area that was also home to important centres of iron production. The Karluks, a federation of three Türgesh tribes with settlements around Tian Shan, were producers and exporters of iron weapons to the Tibetan Empire and the Tang dynasty.[9]
In 747, the Tang general
Battle
The numeric quantities of the combatants involved in the battle of Talas are not known with certainty. The Abbasid army consisted of 200,000 soldiers according to Chinese estimates, which included contingents from their Tibetan ally. On the opposite side, Arab records put the combined Chinese forces at 100,000. But Chinese sources record a combined army of 10,000 Tang infantry and 20,000 Karluk mercenaries.
In July 751, the Muslim forces, including the Karluk mercenaries faced with the Tang forces on the banks of the Talas River. The Muslim General had assembled his troops in a standard formation, with his archers in the front, the spearmen behind them and heavy cavalry with his guard. Gao Xianzhi had assembled his army in a similar manner, with his professionally-trained heavy infantry of crossbowmen and spearmen in the front and in the second line respectively, and the lighter columns of Ferghana mercenaries behind, with the Karluk Turks on the extreme far right and left flanks.[18]The sequence of the first three days of the battle were similar to each other, with the Chinese attacking first from the front, with their archers and crossbowmen dealing substantial damage to the Arab archers with greater accuracy and ranged superiority in crossbows.[19][18] The Arab archers had to retreat behind their spearmen and the Arab spearmen charged ahead, with the infantry lines colliding between the Tang and Abbasid spearmen. However, the Tang professional heavy infantry were better armoured and could sustain more injuries than their Arab counterparts, and managed to push the Arab infantry backwards despite being outnumbered.[20] The Muslim general attempted to alleviate the pressure on his infantry by sending his heavy cavalry to attack the lighter column cavalry on the Chinese flanks. However, this attack failed to outflank Gao's units, but the Chinese general had to move his reserves into a fray. A similar sequence of events happened on the second and third days, but on the fourth day, the Karluk mercenaries betrayed the Chinese and attacked their flanks from the left and right while the Arab infantry made a frontal assault.[21]
The Tang army was subjected to a devastating defeat, owing to the defection of the Karluk mercenaries and the retreat of Ferghana allies who originally supported the Chinese. The Karluk mercenaries, two-thirds of the Tang army, defected to the Abbasids during the battle; Karluk troops attacked the Tang army from close quarters while the main Abbasid forces attacked from the front. The Tang troops were unable to hold their positions, and the commander of the Tang forces, Gao Xianzhi, recognized that defeat was imminent and managed to escape with some of his Tang regulars with the help of Li Siye. Out of an estimated 10,000 Tang troops, only 2,000 managed to return from Talas to their territory in central Asia. Despite losing the battle, Li did inflict heavy losses on the pursuing Arab army after being reproached by Duan Xiushi.[22]
Aftermath
According to a text by
The An Lushan rebellion ended the Tang presence in central Asia and forced them to withdraw from the northwestern frontier; because the Arabs did not advance any further after the battle, Talas was of no strategic importance.[31][32] After the battle, a small number of Karluks converted to Islam. However, the majority would not convert until the mid-10th century, when Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan established the Kara-Khanid Khanate.[33][34][35][36][37] This occurred well after Tang dynasty was gone from central Asia.
Caliph Al-Saffah died in 754. Chinese sources record that his successor, the Abbasid caliph
The Tang dynasty recovered its power decades after the An Lushan rebellion and was still able to launch offensive conquests and campaigns like its destruction of the Uyghur Khaganate in Mongolia during 840–847.[43] It was the Huang Chao rebellion (874–884) that permanently destroyed the power of the Tang dynasty since Huang not only devastated the north but marched into southern China which An Lushan failed to do due to the Battle of Suiyang. Huang's army in southern China committed the Guangzhou massacre against foreign Arab and Persian Muslim, Zoroastrian, Jewish and Christian merchants in 878–879 at the seaport and trading entrepôt of Guangzhou,[44] and captured both Tang dynasty capitals, Luoyang and Chang'an. A medieval Chinese source claimed that Huang Chao killed 8 million people.[45] Even though Huang Chao was eventually defeated, the Tang Emperors lost all their power to regional jiedushi and Huang Chao's former lieutenant Zhu Wen who had defected to the Tang court turned the Tang emperors into his puppets and completed the destruction of Chang'an by dismantling Chang'an and transporting the materials east to Luoyang when he forced the court to move the capital. Zhu Wen deposed the last Tang Emperor in 907 and founded Later Liang (Five Dynasties), plunging China into the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period as regional jiedushi warlords declared their own dynasties and kingdoms.
The Tibetan Empire began attacking China, during a period where the Tibetan army also conquered territory in the
Talas is in modern-day
Following the An Lushan rebellion, the diplomatic exchange between Buddhist Indian kingdoms and the Tang dynasty all but ceased. Prior to the An Lushan rebellion, between 640 and 750 diplomatic envoys from Indian kingdoms, often accompanied by
Papermaking
According to the 11th-century Persian historian
No historic Chinese source records this transfer of technology through prisoners of war and no contemporary Arabic accounts of the transfer of paper exist.
Modern evaluation
Among the earliest historians who proclaimed the importance of this battle was the Russian historian Vasily Bartold, according to whom: "The earlier Arab historians, occupied with the narrative of events then taking place in western Asia, do not mention this battle; but it is undoubtedly of great importance in the history of Western Turkestan as it determined the question which of the two civilizations, the Chinese or the Muslim, should predominate in the land [of Turkestan]."[60]
The Tang loss of 8,000 troops can be compared to a total strength of more than 500,000 on the eve of the An Lushan rebellion.
Professor Denis Sinor said that it was interference in the internal affairs of the Western Turkic Khaganate which ended Chinese supremacy in central Asia, since the destruction of the Western Khaganate rid the Muslims of their greatest opponent, and it was not the Battle of Talas which ended the Chinese presence.[63]
The Chinese historian
Professor Xue Zongzheng came to the conclusion that other than the transfer of paper, there is no evidence to support a geopolitical or demographic change resulting from this battle. In fact, it seems that Tang influence over central Asia even strengthened after 751 and that by 755, Tang power in central Asia was at its zenith. Several of the factors after the battle had been taken note of prior to 751. Firstly, the Karluks never in any sense remained opposed to the Chinese after the battle. In 753, the Karluk Yabghu submitted under the column of Cheng Qianli and captured A-Busi, a Chinese mercenary who had defected to the Tongluo chief earlier in 743, receiving his title in court on 22 October.[66]
See also
Notes
References
Citations
- ^ a b c d e Bai 2003, pp. 224–225.
- ^ Barthold, William (2003), Turkestan down to the Mongol invasion, London: Oxford University Press, p. 196
- ISBN 978-1-134-53113-4.
- ^ Bai 2003, pp. 241–242.
- ISBN 978-0-199-79317-4.
- ISBN 978-0-199-73413-9.
- ISBN 978-0-199-73413-9.
- ISBN 978-0-199-79317-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-588-39180-3.
- ISBN 978-0-300-12263-3.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-824-82593-5.
- ISBN 978-1-588-39399-9.
- ISBN 978-0-199-91636-8.
- ^ Bai 2003, pp. 224–226.
- ISBN 7-5316-2857-0.
- ^ 新唐书.高仙芝传 (in Literary Chinese). 1060. pp. volume70. 帝乃擢仙芝鸿胪卿、假御史中丞,代灵察为四镇节度使
- ^ 旧唐书.地理一 (in Literary Chinese). 945. pp. ch18.
- ^ a b Lewis 2009.
- ISBN 978-0-198-66277-8, retrieved 21 March 2024
- JSTOR 48578413.
- JSTOR 40379005.
- ^ Bai 2003, pp. 226–228.
- ISBN 978-0-300-09038-3.
- ISBN 978-8-362-44719-0.
- ISBN 978-9-004-28171-4.
- ^ Rabbani, G. M. (1981). Ancient Kashmir: A Historical Perspective. Gulshan. p. 15.
- ^ Shaiva, Pirzada Ghulam Rasool (2021). The Wonderful Miracles of Sufi Saints of Kashmir: Majmmoa Masmooa. Ashraf Fazili. p. 22.
- ^ Shah, Sayid Ashraf (2021). Islam in Kashmir. Ashraf Fazili. p. 91.
- ^ Shah, Sayid Ashraf (2021). Flower Garden: Posh-i-Chaman. Ashraf Fazili. p. 70.
- ^ J & K Research Biannual. Directorate of Libraries, Research, Museums and Archaeology. 1976. p. 46.
- ^ ed. Starr 2004 Archived 30 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, p. 39.
- ^ Millward 2007 Archived 30 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, p. 36.
- ISBN 0391041746. Archivedfrom the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-521-51441-5. Archivedfrom the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
- ^ Esposito 1999, p. 351.
- ISBN 978-0-520-07060-8. Archivedfrom the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
- ^ Soucek 2000, p. 84.
- ISBN 978-1-787-56679-8.
- ^ Lewis 2009, p. 158.
- ISBN 978-0-765-63192-3.
- ISBN 052108573X.
- ^ Wan 2017, p. 11; Qi 2010, p. 221-227.
- ^ Baumer 2012, p. 310.
- ^ Gernet 1996, p. 292.
- ^ 《殘唐五代史演義傳》:“卓吾子評:‘僖宗以貌取人,失之巢賊,致令殺人八百萬,血流三千里’”
- ISBN 978-0-824-82593-5.
- ISBN 978-0-300-15404-7.
- ISBN 978-0-199-34037-8. Archivedfrom the original on 19 February 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-230-10910-0.
- ^ Lewis 2009, p. 159.
- ^ Biran, Michal. "Biran 2012, p. 90". Archived from the original on 31 July 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
- ^ Biran 2012, p. 90. Archived 2014-04-14 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Pozzi & Janhunen & Weiers 2006, p. 114.
- ^ Biran 2005, p. 93.
- ISBN 0-471-29198-6
- ^ Quraishi, Silim "A survey of the development of papermaking in Islamic Countries", Bookbinder, 1989 (3): 29–36.
- ^ Park 2012, p. 25.
- ^ Bloom 2001, pp. 38–45.
- ^ Park 2012, pp. 25–26; Bloom 2001, pp. 38–45.
- ^ Bartold 1928, pp. 180–196.
- ^ Bai 2003, pp. 219–223.
- ^ Bartold 1928, pp. 2–3.
- ^ [The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Sinor 1990, p. 344.]
- ^ Bai 2003, pp. 233–234.
- ^ Bai 2003, pp. 239–242.
- ISBN 7-5316-2857-0.
Works cited
- Bai, Shouyi (2003), 中囯回回民族史 [A History of Chinese Muslims] (in Chinese), vol. 2, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, ISBN 7-101-02890-X
- Bartold, Vasily (1928), (Western) Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion, Munshiram Manoharlal, ISBN 978-8-121-50544-4
- Baumer, Christoph (2012), The History of Central Asia: The Age of the Steppe Warriors
- Bloom, Jonathan (2001), Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08955-4
- Gernet, Jacques (1996), A History of Chinese Civilization (2nd ed.), New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-49781-7
- Park, Hyunhee (2012), Mapping the Chinese and Islamic Worlds: Cross-Cultural Exchange in Pre-Modern Asia, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-139-53662-2
- Lewis, Mark Edward (2009), China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-05419-6
- Qi, Dongfang (2010), "Gold and Silver Wares on the Belitung Shipwreck", in Krahl, Regina; Guy, John; Wilson, J. Keith; Raby, Julian (eds.), Shipwrecked: Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, Washington, D.C.: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institute, pp. 221–227, ISBN 978-1-588-34305-5, archived from the original(PDF) on 4 May 2021, retrieved 9 February 2022
- Wan, Lei (2017), The Earliest Muslim Communities in China, Qiraat, vol. 8, Riyadh: King Faisal Center for research and Islamic Studies, p. 11, ISBN 978-6-038-20639-3