Burmese literature
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The literature of
Burmese literature has historically been a very important aspect of Burmese life steeped in the Pali
Beginning soon after self-rule,
Classical literature
The earliest forms of Burmese literature were on stone engravings called kyauksa (
The earliest works of Burmese literature date from the Bagan dynasty. They include proses recording monarchical merit acts and poetic works, the earliest of which was Yakhaing minthami eigyin (Cradle Song of the Princess of Arakan), dated to 1455.
Non-fiction and religious works prevailed during this period although
As literature grew more liberal and secular, poetry became the most popular form of literature in Burma. The flexibility of the
Buddhist monks were also influential in developing Burmese literature. Shin Aggathammadi rendered in verse the
After the conquest of
In the areas of law, there were two major types of literature,
As the
First printing press (1816)
The arrival of the first printing press in Burma in 1816, sent by the British Serampore Mission, helped to liberalise centuries-old traditions of writing in verse (lay-lone tha-paik (လေးလုံးတစ်ပိုဒ်), a poetry type, where four syllable lines are linked in a climbing rhyme and grouped into stanzas of 30 lines.).[2]
Monks remained powerful in Burmese literature, compiling histories of Burma.
In 1829, King Bagyidaw appointed scholars to compile the Hmannan yazawin dawgyi (Glass Palace Chronicle), covering Burmese history until 1821.[2] A successor king, King Mindon Min appointed a committee of Burmese scholars from 1867 to 1869 to create the Dutiya maha yazawin dawgyi (The Second Great Royal Chronicles).[2]
British Burma (1824-1948)
When Burma became a colony of
In 1910,
A major landmark in Burmese literature was called the Hkit san (Testing the Times, ခေတ်စမ်း) movement, a search for a new style and content, led most notably by
Theippan Maung Wa and Thein Pe Myint[6] were among other original and innovative authors from the colonial period. Female writers, such as Dagon Khin Khin Lay, who wrote about the hardships of peasant life under colonialism, also gained prominence during the nationalist period leading up to independence.[2] The British author George Orwell, who was severely critical of British colonialism, wrote Burmese Days published in 1935.
In addition, literary culture in Burma expanded to the masses during this period, with the arrival of printing presses and publishers, such as the Hanthawaddy Press, a major publisher of Burmese and Buddhist works established by Phillip Ripley.[2] In the 1920s to the 1930s, monthly literary magazines like Dagon and Ganda Lawka (World of Classics) were published to connect readers to writers, who often published novels in serial installations.
Post-independence literature (1948-)
After independence in 1948, Burmese literature developed further to adopt and assimilate Western styles of writing. A year earlier, the Burmese Translation Society, a government-subsidised organisation, was founded to translate foreign works, especially those related to the fields of science and technology. In 1963, a year after the socialist coup, the society was merged into the Sapay Beikman (စာပေဗိမာန်), a government publishing house. Another influential publisher was the Pagan Press (est. 1962), which translated
The socialist government, like the previous civilian government, was a patron of Burmese literature, believing "enriching literature" to be a goal of
- To introduce necessary bills, acts and orders concerning literature and information agencies.
- To promote participation of the people in the construction of the socialist state.
- To defend the socialist system from its ideological enemies.
—Discussion of the National Literary Conference. Rangoon: Ministry of Information, 1963.
Censorship
In 1971, the government formed the Burmese literary Commission, to develop Burmese literature further.
By 1976, only 411 titles were published annually, compared to 1882, when 445 titles were published.[1][8] Various factors, especially the lengthened bureaucratic process to obtain printing permits, censorship, and increasing economic hardship of consumers because of the socialist economic schemes, contributed to the decline of Burmese literary output.
Popular novels have similar themes, often involving adventure, espionage, detective work, and romance. Many writers also translate Western novels, especially those of Arthur Hailey and Harold Robbins. The flourishing translation sector is the result of the Burmese government, which did not sign the Universal Copyright Convention Agreement, which would have forced Burmese writers to pay royalties to the original writers.[1]
Short stories, often published in magazines, also enjoy tremendous popularity. They often deal with everyday life and have political messages (such as subtle criticisms of the capitalist system), partly because unlike novels, short stories are not censored by the Press Scrutiny Board. Poetry is also a popular genre today, as it was during the monarchical times, but unlike novels and other works, which use literary Burmese, may use the vernacular, instead of literary Burmese. This reform movement is led by left-leaning writers who believe laymen's language (the vernacular and colloquial form of Burmese) ought to be used instead of formal Burmese in literature.[1]
One of the greatest female writers of the Post-colonial period is Journal Kyaw Ma Ma Lay. Khin Myo Chit was another important writer, who wrote, among her works, The 13-Carat Diamond (1955), which was translated into many languages. The journalist Ludu U Hla was the author of numerous volumes of ethnic minority folklore, novels about inmates in U Nu-era jails, and biographies of people working in different occupations. The prime minister U Nu himself wrote several politically oriented plays and novels.
Other prolific writers of the post-colonial era include Thein Pe Myint (and his The Ocean Traveller and the Pearl Queen, considered a Burmese classic), Mya Than Tint (known for his translations of Western classics like War and Peace), Thawda Swe and Myat Htun. Distinguished female writers, who have also been an ever-present force in Burmese literary history, include Kyi Aye, Khin Hnin Yu, and San San Nweh.
Contemporary
In 2012, the anthology Bones Will Crow: 15 Contemporary Burmese Poets [9] was edited by Ko Ko Thett and James Byrne. It featured poetry from Tin Moe, Thitsar Ni, Aung Cheimt, Ma Ei, Maung Chaw Nwe, Maung Pyiyt Min, Khin Aung Aye, Zeyar Lynn, Maung Thein Zaw, Moe Zaw, Moe Way, ko ko thett, Eaindra, Pandora and Maung Yu Py, and was published by Arc Publications Anthologies in Translation series and, later in 2013, by Northern Illinois University Press in the United States. This bilingual English/Burmese edition of poetry is regarded as the first anthology of modern Burmese poetry in the West.[citation needed]
Notable writers
The journalist Ludu U Hla (1910–1982) was the author of numerous volumes of ethnic minority folklore, novels about inmates in U Nu-era jails, and biographies of people working in different occupations. The prime minister U Nu himself wrote several politically oriented plays and novels. Other writers who came of age prior to 1947 during the colonial era included Hmawbi Saya Thein (1862–1942), James Hla Kyaw (1866-1919), U Ottama (1879–1939), Thakin Kodaw Hmaing (1876–1964), P Moe Nin (1883-1940), Pe Maung Tin (1888–1973),
Younger authors who became well known in Burma include Aung Thin (born c. 1927), Mya Than Tint (1929–1998) who was known for his translations of Western classics like War and Peace, Tekkatho Phone Naing (1930–2002),
Well-known Burmese historians include San C. Po (1870–1946), Htin Aung (1909–1978), Sao Saimong (1913–1987), Ba Shin (1914-1971), Than Tun (1923–2005), Myoma Myint Kywe (born 1960) and Thant Myint-U (born 1966)
Distinguished female writers, who have also been an ever-present force in Burmese literary history, include Kyi Aye, Ludu Daw Amar (1915–2008), Khin Hnin Yu (1925–2003), Aung San Suu Kyi (born 1945), Minfong Ho (born 1951), Nu Nu Yi (born 1957), San San Nweh, Jue (born 1958), Khin Khin Htoo (born 1965) Ma Sandar (1942 born) and Mi Chan Wai. One of the greatest female writers of the post-colonial period is Journal Kyaw Ma Ma Lay (1917-1982). Khin Myo Chit (1915–1999) was another important writer, who wrote, among her works, The 13-Carat Diamond (1955), which was translated into many languages.
See also
- Culture of Burma
- Yama Zatdaw
- Cinema of Burma
- Censorship in Burma
- Literature about Southeast Asia
- List of Burmese writers
- Annemarie Esche
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h U Thaung (Aung Bala) (1981). "Contemporary Burmese Literature". Contributions to Asian Studies. 16: 81–99. Retrieved 10 August 2008.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8248-1267-6.
- ^ Nga-zi-shin Kyaw-Zwa. "Shield Dance Song (ka jin) inc. audio". Retrieved 17 April 2016.
- ^ D.G.E. Hall (1960). Burma. Hutchinson University Library. pp. 32–33.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Ramayana in Myanmar's Heart". Archived from the original on 29 October 2006. Retrieved 5 September 2006.
- ^ a b c Anna J. Allott Ed. (1988). Far Eastern Literatures in the 20th Century - Burmese Literature. England: Oldcastle Books. pp. 2, 5–6, 8–9.
- ^ Maung Swan Yi (December 2002). ""Chewing the West":The Development of Modern Burmese Literature under the Influence of Western Literature" (PDF). pp. 4–5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2006.
- ^ Statistics available on page 86 of U Thaung's Contemporary Burmese Literature.
- ^ "Arc Publications - Books".
External links
- A Study of the Rise of the Burmese Novel Zawgyi, Journal of Burma Research Society, June 1968
- University of Washington Library's Burmese literature database
- Myanmar Historical Fiction and their Historical Context U Than Htut and U Thaw Kaung, Perspective, Dec. 2001
- Literature
- Ayinepan Literature
- Burmese Literature, Northern Illinois University Archived 27 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Article on Dagon Taya
- Inked Over, Ripped Out: Burmese Storytellers and the Censors, Anna J. Allott
- Burmese Contemporary Essays A Review by Maung Swan Yi, VOA 1 September 2006
- Bones will Crow: 15 Contemporary Burmese Poets, translated and edited by ko ko thett and James Byrne (ARC Publications, UK 2012)