, who were allied by marriage with the Sforzas and destined to play a major role later in Caravaggio's life.
In Rome, there was a demand for paintings to fill the many huge new churches and palaces being built at the time. It was also a period when the Church was searching for a stylistic alternative to Mannerism in religious art that was tasked to counter the threat of Protestantism .[16] Caravaggio's innovation was a radical naturalism that combined close physical observation with a dramatic, even theatrical, use of chiaroscuro that came to be known as tenebrism (the shift from light to dark with little intermediate value).
Caravaggio's first paintings on religious themes returned to realism and the emergence of remarkable spirituality. The first of these was the Penitent Magdalene , showing Mary Magdalene at the moment when she has turned from her life as a courtesan and sits weeping on the floor, her jewels scattered around her. "It seemed not a religious painting at all ... a girl sitting on a low wooden stool drying her hair ... Where was the repentance ... suffering ... promise of salvation?"[22] It was understated, in the Lombard manner, not histrionic in the Roman manner of the time. It was followed by others in the same style: Saint Catherine ; Martha and Mary Magdalene ; Judith Beheading Holofernes ; Sacrifice of Isaac ; Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy ; and Rest on the Flight into Egypt . These works, while viewed by a comparatively limited circle, increased Caravaggio's fame with both connoisseurs and his fellow artists. But a true reputation would depend on public commissions, for which it was necessary to look to the Church.
Already evident was the intense realism or naturalism for which Caravaggio is now famous. He preferred to paint his subjects as the eye sees them, with all their natural flaws and defects, instead of as idealised creations. This allowed a full display of his virtuosic talents. This shift from accepted standard practice and the classical idealism of Michelangelo was very controversial at the time. Caravaggio also dispensed with the lengthy preparations for a painting that were traditional in central Italy at the time. Instead, he preferred the Venetian practice of working in oils directly from the subject—half-length figures and still life. Supper at Emmaus , from c. 1600–1601 , is a characteristic work of this period demonstrating his virtuoso talent.
Caravaggio went on to secure a string of prestigious commissions for religious works featuring violent struggles, grotesque decapitations, torture, and death. Most notable and technically masterful among them were The Taking of Christ (circa 1602) for the
Mattei family , which were only rediscovered in the 1990s in
Trieste and in
Dublin after remaining unrecognized for two centuries.
[24] For the most part, each new painting increased his fame, but a few were rejected by the various bodies for whom they were intended, at least in their original forms, and had to be re-painted or find new buyers. The essence of the problem was that while Caravaggio's dramatic intensity was appreciated, his realism was seen by some as unacceptably vulgar.
[25]
Saint Paul on the ground?" "Because!" "Is the horse God?" "No, but he stands in God's light!"
[26]
The aristocratic collector
The second version of The Taking of Christ , which was looted from the Odessa Museum in 2008 and recovered in 2010, is believed by some experts to be a contemporary copy.[28]
The Incredulity of Saint Thomas (Ecclesiastical Version, 1601), private collection, Florence, Italy
, Potsdam.
The painting depicts the episode that led to the term "Doubting Thomas "—in art history formally known as "The Incredulity of Saint Thomas"—which has been frequently depicted and used to make various theological statements in Christian art since at least the 5th century. According to the Gospel of John , Thomas the Apostle missed one of Jesus' appearances to the apostles after his resurrection and said, "Unless I see the marks of the nails in his hands, and put my finger where the nails were, and put my hand into his side, I will not believe it." A week later, Jesus appeared and told Thomas to touch him and stop doubting. Then Jesus said, "Because you have seen me, you have believed; blessed are those who have not seen and yet have believed."
Both versions of the painting show in a demonstrative gesture how the doubting apostle puts his finger into Christ's side wound, the latter guiding his hand. The unbeliever is depicted like a peasant, dressed in a robe torn at the shoulder and with dirt under his fingernails. The composition of the picture is designed in such a way that the viewer is directly involved in the event and feels the intensity of the event.[29]
It should also be noted that in the ecclesiastical version of the unbelieving Thomas, Christ's thigh is shown to be covered, whereas in the secular version of the painting, Christ's thigh is visible.[30] [31]
Death of the Virgin , 1601–1606, Louvre , Paris
Other works included . The history of these last two paintings illustrates the reception given to some of Caravaggio's art and the times in which he lived. The Grooms' Madonna , also known as Madonna dei palafrenieri , painted for a small altar in Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome, remained there for just two days and was then removed. A cardinal's secretary wrote: "In this painting, there are but vulgarity, sacrilege, impiousness and disgust...One would say it is a work made by a painter that can paint well, but of a dark spirit, and who has been for a lot of time far from God, from His adoration, and from any good thought..."
Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. Caravaggio shows
Cupid prevailing over all human endeavors: war, music, science, government.
before entering the French royal collection in 1671.
One secular piece from these years is Amor Vincit Omnia , in English also called Amor Victorious , painted in 1602 for Vincenzo Giustiniani , a member of del Monte's circle. The model was named in a memoir of the early 17th century as "Cecco", the diminutive for Francesco. He is possibly Francesco Boneri, identified with an artist active in the period 1610–1625 and known as Cecco del Caravaggio ('Caravaggio's Cecco'),[35] carrying a bow and arrows and trampling symbols of the warlike and peaceful arts and sciences underfoot. He is unclothed, and it is difficult to accept this grinning urchin as the Roman god Cupid —as difficult as it was to accept Caravaggio's other semi-clad adolescents as the various angels he painted in his canvases, wearing much the same stage-prop wings. The point, however, is the intense yet ambiguous reality of the work: it is simultaneously Cupid and Cecco, as Caravaggio's Virgins were simultaneously the Mother of Christ and the Roman courtesans who modeled for them.
Legal problems and flight from Rome (1606)
Saint Jerome Writing , c. 1605–1606 , Galleria Borghese , Rome
Caravaggio led a tumultuous life. He was notorious for brawling, even in a time and place when such behavior was commonplace, and the transcripts of his police records and trial proceedings fill many pages.[36]
Bellori claims that around 1590–1592, Caravaggio, already well known for brawling with gangs of young men, committed a murder which forced him to flee from Milan, first to Venice and then to Rome.[37]
On 28 November 1600, while living at the Palazzo Madama with his patron Cardinal Del Monte, Caravaggio beat nobleman Girolamo Stampa da Montepulciano, a guest of the cardinal, with a club, resulting in an official complaint to the police. Episodes of brawling, violence, and tumult grew more and more frequent.[38] Caravaggio was often arrested and jailed at Tor di Nona .[39]
After his release from jail in 1601, Caravaggio returned to paint first for writing offensive poems about him. The French ambassador intervened, and Caravaggio was transferred to house arrest after a month in jail in Tor di Nona.
Between May and October 1604, Caravaggio was arrested several times for possession of illegal weapons and for insulting the city guards. He was also sued by a tavern waiter for having thrown a plate of artichokes in his face.[40]
An early published notice on Caravaggio, dating from 1604 and describing his lifestyle three years previously, recounts that "after a fortnight's work he will swagger about for a month or two with a sword at his side and a servant following him, from one ball-court to the next, ever ready to engage in a fight or an argument, so that it is most awkward to get along with him."[41]
In 1605, Caravaggio was forced to flee to Genoa for three weeks after seriously injuring Mariano Pasqualone di Accumoli, a notary, in a dispute over Lena, Caravaggio's model and lover. The notary reported having been attacked on 29 July with a sword, causing a severe head injury.[42] [43] Caravaggio's patrons intervened and managed to cover up the incident.
Upon his return to Rome, Caravaggio was sued by his landlady Prudenzia Bruni for not having paid his rent. Out of spite, Caravaggio threw rocks through her window at night and was sued again.
In November, Caravaggio was hospitalized for an injury which he claimed he had caused himself by falling on his own sword.
On 29 May 1606, Caravaggio killed a young man, possibly unintentionally, resulting in his fleeing Rome with a death sentence hanging over him. Ranuccio Tomassoni was a gangster from a wealthy family. The two had argued many times, often ending in blows. The circumstances are unclear, whether a brawl or a duel with swords at Campo Marzio , but the killing may have been unintentional.
Many rumors circulated at the time as to the cause of the fight. Several contemporary avvisi referred to a quarrel over a gambling debt and a
pallacorda game, a sort of tennis, and this explanation has become established in the popular imagination.
[44] Other rumors, however, claimed that the duel stemmed from jealousy over
Fillide Melandroni , a well-known Roman prostitute who had modeled for him in several important paintings; Tomassoni was her pimp. According to such rumors, Caravaggio castrated Tomassoni with his sword before deliberately killing him, with other versions claiming that Tomassoni's death had been caused accidentally during the castration. The duel may have had a political dimension, as Tomassoni's family was notoriously pro-Spanish, whereas Caravaggio was a client of the French ambassador.
Caravaggio's patrons had hitherto been able to shield him from any serious consequences of his frequent duels and brawling, but Tomassoni's wealthy family was outraged by his death and demanded justice. Caravaggio's patrons were unable to protect him. Caravaggio was sentenced to
beheading
for murder, and an open bounty was decreed, enabling anyone who recognized him to carry out the sentence legally. Caravaggio's paintings began, obsessively, to depict severed heads, often his own, at this time.
Good modern accounts are to be found in Peter Robb 's M and Helen Langdon's Caravaggio: A Life . A theory relating the death to Renaissance notions of honour and symbolic wounding has been advanced by art historian Andrew Graham-Dixon .[45] Whatever the details, it was a serious matter.[46] [47]
Map of Caravaggio's travels
Caravaggio was forced to flee Rome. He moved just south of the city, then to Naples , Malta , and Sicily .
Exile and death (1606–1610)
Naples
Following the death of Tomassoni, Caravaggio fled first to the estates of the Colonna family south of Rome and then on to Naples, where Costanza Colonna Sforza, widow of Francesco Sforza, in whose husband's household Caravaggio's father had held a position, maintained a palace. In Naples, outside the jurisdiction of the Roman authorities and protected by the Colonna family, the most famous painter in Rome became the most famous in Naples.
, Naples
His connections with the Colonnas led to a stream of important church commissions, including the
Malta
Despite his success in Naples, after only a few months in the city Caravaggio left for
Knights of Saint John, could help him secure a
pardon for Tomassoni's death.
[27] Wignacourt was so impressed at having the famous artist as official painter to the Order that he inducted him as a Knight, and the early biographer Bellori records that the artist was well pleased with his success.
[27]
, Valletta, Malta)
Major works from his Malta period include the St. John's Co-Cathedral, for which it was commissioned and where Caravaggio himself was inducted and briefly served as a knight.
[53] [52]
Yet, by late August 1608, he was arrested and imprisoned,[27] likely the result of yet another brawl, this time with an aristocratic knight, during which the door of a house was battered down and the knight seriously wounded.[27] [54] Caravaggio was imprisoned by the Knights at Valletta , but he managed to escape. By December, he had been expelled from the Order "as a foul and rotten member", a formal phrase used in all such cases.[55]
Sicily
The Raising of Lazarus and the Adoration of the Shepherds , Regional Museum of Messina , Sicily, Italy
Caravaggio made his way to
The Raising of Lazarus, and
Adoration of the Shepherds . His style continued to evolve, showing now friezes of figures isolated against vast empty backgrounds. "His great Sicilian altarpieces isolate their shadowy, pitifully poor figures in vast areas of darkness; they suggest the desperate fears and frailty of man, and at the same time convey, with a new yet desolate tenderness, the beauty of humility and of the meek, who shall inherit the earth."
[56] Contemporary reports depict a man whose behaviour was becoming increasingly bizarre, which included sleeping fully armed and in his clothes, ripping up a painting at a slight word of criticism, and mocking local painters.
Caravaggio displayed bizarre behaviour from very early in his career. Mancini describes him as "extremely crazy", a letter from Del Monte notes his strangeness, and Minniti's 1724 biographer says that Mario left Caravaggio because of his behaviour. The strangeness seems to have increased after Malta. Susinno's early-18th-century Le vite de' pittori Messinesi ("Lives of the Painters of Messina") provides several colourful anecdotes of Caravaggio's erratic behaviour in Sicily, and these are reproduced in modern full-length biographies such as Langdon and Robb. Bellori writes of Caravaggio's "fear" driving him from city to city across the island and finally, "feeling that it was no longer safe to remain", back to Naples. Baglione says Caravaggio was being "chased by his enemy", but like Bellori does not say who this enemy was.
Return to Naples
Salome with the Head of John the Baptist , Royal Palace of Madrid
After only nine months in Sicily, Caravaggio returned to Naples in the late summer of 1609. According to his earliest biographer, he was being pursued by enemies while in Sicily and felt it safest to place himself under the protection of the Colonnas until he could secure his pardon from the pope (now
strikes her in the breast, unlike earlier paintings that had all the immobility of the posed models. The brushwork was also much freer and more impressionistic.
David with the Head of Goliath , 1609–1610, Galleria Borghese , Rome
In October 1609, he was involved in a violent clash, an attempt on his life, perhaps ambushed by men in the pay of the knight he had wounded in Malta or some other faction of the Order. His face was seriously disfigured and rumours circulated in Rome that he was dead. He painted a Salome with the Head of John the Baptist (Madrid), showing his own head on a platter, and sent it to Wignacourt as a plea for forgiveness. Perhaps at this time, he also painted a
David with the Head of Goliath , showing the young David with a strangely sorrowful expression gazing at the severed head of the giant, which is again Caravaggio. This painting he may have sent to his patron, the unscrupulous art-loving Cardinal
Scipione Borghese , nephew of the pope, who had the power to grant or withhold pardons.
[58] Caravaggio hoped Borghese could mediate a pardon in exchange for works by the artist.
News from Rome encouraged Caravaggio, and in the summer of 1610, he took a boat northwards to receive the pardon, which seemed imminent thanks to his powerful Roman friends. With him were three last paintings, the gifts for Cardinal Scipione.[59] What happened next is the subject of much confusion and conjecture, shrouded in much mystery.
The bare facts seem to be that on 28 July, an anonymous avviso (private newsletter) from Rome to the ducal court of Urbino reported that Caravaggio was dead. Three days later, another
avviso said that he had died of fever on his way from Naples to Rome. A poet friend of the artist later gave 18 July as the date of death, and a recent researcher claims to have discovered a death notice showing that the artist died on that day of a fever in
Porto Ercole , near
Grosseto in
Tuscany .
[60]
Death
Caravaggio had a fever at the time of his death, and what killed him was a matter of controversy and rumour at the time and has been a matter of historical debate and study since.[61] Contemporary rumors held that either the Tomassoni family or the Knights had him killed in revenge. Traditionally historians have long thought he died of syphilis .[61] Some have said he had malaria , or possibly brucellosis from unpasteurised dairy.[61] Some scholars have argued that Caravaggio was actually attacked and killed by the same "enemies" that had been pursuing him since he fled Malta, possibly Wignacourt and/or factions of the Knights.[62]
Caravaggio's remains were buried in Porto Ercole's San Sebastiano cemetery, which closed in 1956, and then moved to St. Erasmus cemetery, where, in 2010, archaeologists conducted a year-long investigation of remains found in three crypts and after using DNA, carbon dating, and other methods, believe with a high degree of confidence that they have identified those of Caravaggio.[63] [64] Initial tests suggested Caravaggio might have died of lead poisoning —paints used at the time contained high amounts of lead salts, and Caravaggio is known to have indulged in violent behavior, as caused by lead poisoning.[65] Later research concluded he died as the result of a wound sustained in a brawl in Naples, specifically from sepsis caused by Staphylococcus aureus .[66]
Vatican documents released in 2002 support the theory that the wealthy Tomassoni family had him hunted down and killed as a vendetta for Caravaggio's murder of gangster Ranuccio Tomassoni, in a botched attempt at castration after a duel over the affections of model Fillide Melandroni.[67]
Sexuality
Fillide Melandroni
Since the 1970s art scholars and historians have debated the inferences of homoeroticism in Caravaggio's works as a way to better understand the man.[68] Caravaggio never married and had no known children, and Howard Hibbard observed the absence of erotic female figures in the artist's oeuvre: "In his entire career he did not paint a single female nude",[69] and the cabinet-pieces from the Del Monte period are replete with "full-lipped, languorous boys ... who seem to solicit the onlooker with their offers of fruit, wine, flowers—and themselves" suggesting an erotic interest in the male form.[70] The model of Amor vincit omnia , Cecco del Caravaggio , lived with the artist in Rome and stayed with him even after he was obliged to leave the city in 1606. The two may have been lovers.[71]
A connection with a certain Lena is mentioned in a 1605 court deposition by Pasqualone, where she is described as "Michelangelo's girl".[72] According to G. B. Passeri, this 'Lena' was Caravaggio's model for the Madonna di Loreto ; and according to Catherine Puglisi, 'Lena' may have been the same person as the courtesan Maddalena di Paolo Antognetti, who named Caravaggio as an "intimate friend" by her own testimony in 1604.[73] [74] Caravaggio was also rumored to be madly in love with Fillide Melandroni, a well known Roman prostitute who modeled for him in several important paintings.[75]
Boy with a Basket of Fruit, 1593–1594, oil on canvas, 67 cm × 53 cm (26
in × 21 in),
Galleria Borghese , Rome
Caravaggio's
blasphemous nature, in which a circle of thirty men (
turpiter ligati ) are intertwined in embrace and presented in unbridled composition. Mirabeau notes the affectionate nature of Caravaggio's depiction reflects the voluptuous glow of the artist's sexuality.
[78] By the late nineteenth century, Sir
Richard Francis Burton identified the painting as Caravaggio's painting of St. Rosario. Burton also identifies both St. Rosario and this painting with the practices of
Tiberius mentioned by
Seneca the Younger .
[79] The survival status and location of Caravaggio's painting is unknown. No such painting appears in his or his school's catalogues.
[80]
Sacred Love Versus Profane Love (1602–03), by Giovanni Baglione . Intended as an attack on his hated enemy, Caravaggio, it shows a winged male youth with an arrow, most likely a representation of Eros, the god associated with Aphrodite and sexual (i.e., profane) love, on one side, a devil with Caravaggio's face on the other, and between an angel representing pure, meaning non-erotic or sacred, love.
Aside from the paintings, evidence also comes from the libel trial brought against Caravaggio by Giovanni Baglione in 1603. Baglione accused Caravaggio and his friends of writing and distributing scurrilous doggerel attacking him; the pamphlets, according to Baglione's friend and witness Mao Salini, had been distributed by a certain Giovanni Battista, a bardassa , or boy prostitute, shared by Caravaggio and his friend Onorio Longhi. Caravaggio denied knowing any young boy of that name, and the allegation was not followed up.[81]
Baglione's painting of "Divine Love" has also been seen as a visual accusation of sodomy against Caravaggio.[75] Such accusations were damaging and dangerous as sodomy was a capital crime at the time. Even though the authorities were unlikely to investigate such a well-connected person as Caravaggio, "Once an artist had been smeared as a pederast, his work was smeared too."[71] Francesco Susino in his later biography additionally relates the story of how the artist was chased by a schoolmaster in Sicily for spending too long gazing at the boys in his care. Susino presents it as a misunderstanding, but some authors have speculated that Caravaggio may indeed have been seeking sex with the boys, using the incident to explain some of his paintings which they believe to be homoerotic.[82]
The art historian Andrew Graham-Dixon has summarised the debate:
A lot has been made of Caravaggio's presumed homosexuality, which has in more than one previous account of his life been presented as the single key that explains everything, both the power of his art and the misfortunes of his life. There is no absolute proof of it, only strong circumstantial evidence and much rumour. The balance of probability suggests that Caravaggio did indeed have sexual relations with men. But he certainly had female lovers. Throughout the years that he spent in Rome, he kept close company with a number of prostitutes. The truth is that Caravaggio was as uneasy in his relationships as he was in most other aspects of life. He likely slept with men. He did sleep with women. He settled with no one... [but] the idea that he was an early martyr to the drives of an unconventional sexuality is an anachronistic fiction.[71]
Washington Post art critic Philip Kennicott has taken issue with what he regarded as Graham-Dixon's minimizing of Caravaggio's homosexuality:
There was a fussiness to the tone whenever a scholar or curator was forced to grapple with transgressive sexuality, and you can still find it even in relatively recent histories, including Andrew Graham-Dixon's 2010 biography of Caravaggio, which acknowledges only that "he likely slept with men".[83] The author notes the artist's fluid sexual desires but gives some of Caravaggio's most explicitly homoerotic paintings tortured readings to keep them safely in the category of mere "ambiguity".
As an artist
The birth of Baroque
Supper at Emmaus, 1601, oil on canvas, 139 cm × 195 cm (55 in × 77 in),
National Gallery , London. Self-portrait of Caravaggio as the figure at the top left.
Caravaggio "put the oscuro (shadows) into chiaroscuro ".[84] Chiaroscuro was practised long before he came on the scene, but it was Caravaggio who made the technique a dominant stylistic element, darkening the shadows and transfixing the subject in a blinding shaft of light. With this came the acute observation of physical and psychological reality that formed the ground both for his immense popularity and for his frequent problems with his religious commissions.
He worked at great speed, from live models, scoring basic guides directly onto the canvas with the end of the brush handle; very few of Caravaggio's drawings appear to have survived, and it is likely that he preferred to work directly on the canvas, an unusual approach at the time. His models were basic to his realism; some have been identified, including
Francesco Boneri, both fellow artists, Minniti appearing as various figures in the early secular works, the young Boneri as a succession of angels, Baptists and Davids in the later canvasses. His female models include
Fillide Melandroni ,
Anna Bianchini , and Maddalena Antognetti (the "Lena" mentioned in court documents of the "artichoke" case
[85] as Caravaggio's concubine), all well-known prostitutes, who appear as female religious figures including the Virgin and various saints.
[86] Caravaggio himself appears in several paintings, his final self-portrait being as the witness on the far right to the
Martyrdom of Saint Ursula .
[87]
shows through on the faces and armour even in the absence of a visible shaft of light. The figure on the extreme right is a self-portrait.
Caravaggio had a noteworthy ability to express in one scene of unsurpassed vividness the passing of a crucial moment.
The Caravaggisti
The Crucifixion of Saint Peter , 1601, Cerasi Chapel , Santa Maria del Popolo , Rome
The installation of the St. Matthew paintings in the Contarelli Chapel had an immediate impact among the younger artists in Rome, and Caravaggism became the cutting edge for every ambitious young painter. The first Caravaggisti included Orazio Gentileschi and Giovanni Baglione . Baglione's Caravaggio phase was short-lived; Caravaggio later accused him of plagiarism and the two were involved in a long feud. Baglione went on to write the first biography of Caravaggio. In the next generation of Caravaggisti, there were Carlo Saraceni , Bartolomeo Manfredi and Orazio Borgianni . Gentileschi, despite being considerably older, was the only one of these artists to live much beyond 1620 and ended up as a court painter to Charles I of England . His daughter Artemisia Gentileschi was also stylistically close to Caravaggio and one of the most gifted of the movement. However, in Rome and Italy, it was not Caravaggio, but the influence of his rival Annibale Carracci , blending elements from the High Renaissance and Lombard realism, that ultimately triumphed.
, The Hague)
Caravaggio's brief stay in Naples produced a notable school of Neapolitan Caravaggisti, including Battistello Caracciolo and Carlo Sellitto . The Caravaggisti movement there ended with a terrible outbreak of plague in 1656, but the Spanish connection—Naples was a possession of Spain—was instrumental in forming the important Spanish branch of his influence.
A number of Catholic artists from
Vermeer and Rembrandt, neither of whom visited Italy.
[90]
Death and rebirth of a reputation
Pinacoteca Vaticana
, Rome
Caravaggio's innovations inspired the Baroque, but the Baroque took the drama of his chiaroscuro without the psychological realism.[Giuseppe Ribera
, within a few decades his works were being ascribed to less scandalous artists, or simply overlooked. The Baroque, to which he contributed so much, had evolved, and fashions had changed, but perhaps more pertinently, Caravaggio never established a workshop as the Carracci did and thus had no school to spread his techniques. Nor did he ever set out his underlying philosophical approach to art, the psychological realism that may only be deduced from his surviving work.
Thus his reputation was doubly vulnerable to the unsympathetic critiques of his earliest biographers,
Bolognese school led by the Carracci.
[91] Baglione, his first biographer, played a considerable part in creating the legend of Caravaggio's unstable and violent character, as well as his inability to draw.
[92]
In the 1920s, art critic
Manet would have been utterly different".
[93] The influential
Bernard Berenson agreed: "With the exception of
Michelangelo , no other Italian painter exercised so great an influence."
[94]
Epitaph
The Denial of Saint Peter (1610), Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York City
Caravaggio's epitaph was composed by his friend Marzio Milesi.[95] It reads:
"Michelangelo Merisi, son of Fermo di Caravaggio – in painting not equal to a painter, but to Nature itself – died in Port' Ercole – betaking himself hither from Naples – returning to Rome – 15th calend of August – In the year of our Lord 1610 – He lived thirty-six years nine months and twenty days – Marzio Milesi, Jurisconsult – Dedicated this to a friend of extraordinary genius."[96]
He was commemorated on the front of the
Banca d'Italia
100,000-lire banknote in the 1980s and '90s (before Italy switched to the euro), with the back showing his Basket of Fruit .
Oeuvre
See also:
Chronology of works by Caravaggio
There is disagreement as to the size of Caravaggio's oeuvre, with counts as low as 40 and as high as 80. In his
Saint Augustine dating to about 1600 had been discovered in a private collection in Britain. Called a "significant discovery", the painting had never been published and is thought to have been commissioned by
Vincenzo Giustiniani , a patron of the painter in Rome.
[98]
Conversion on the Way to Damascus , 1601, Cerasi Chapel , Santa Maria del Popolo , Rome
A painting depicting Judith Beheading Holofernes was allegedly discovered in an attic in Toulouse in 2014. In April 2016 the expert and art dealer to whom the work was shown announced that this was a long-lost painting by the hand of Caravaggio himself. That lost Caravaggio painting was only known up to that date by a presumed copy of it by the Flemish painter Louis Finson , who had shared a studio with Caravaggio in Naples.[99] The French government imposed an export ban on the newly discovered painting while tests were carried out to establish whether it was an authentic painting by Caravaggio.[100] [101] In February 2019 it was announced that the painting would be sold at auction after the Louvre had turned down the opportunity to purchase it for €100 million.[102] After an auction was considered, the painting was finally sold in a private sale to the American billionaire hedge fund manager J. Tomilson Hill .[103] [104] The art historical world is not united over the attribution of the work, with the art dealer who sold the work promoting its authenticity with the support of art historians who were given privileged access to the work, while other art historians remain unconvinced mainly based on stylistic and quality considerations.[105] [106] Some art historians believe it may be a work by Louis Finson himself.[107]
In April 2021 a minor work believed to be from the circle of a Spanish follower of Caravaggio, Jusepe de Ribera , was withdrawn from sale at the Madrid auction house Ansorena when the Museo del Prado alerted the Ministry of Culture , which placed a preemptive export ban on the painting. The 111 centimetres (44 in) by 86 centimetres (34 in) painting has been in the Pérez de Castro family since 1823, when it was exchanged for another work from the Real Academia of San Fernando . It had been listed as "Ecce-Hommo con dos saiones de Carabaggio" before the attribution was later lost or changed to the circle of Ribera. Stylistic evidence, as well as the similarity of the models to those in other Caravaggio works, has convinced some experts that the painting is the original Caravaggio 'Ecce Homo ' for the 1605 Massimo Massimi commission. The attribution to Caravaggio is disputed by other experts. The painting is now undergoing restoration by Colnaghis , who will also be handling the future sale of the work.[108] [109] [110] [111] [112]
Theft
Nativity with St. Francis and St. Lawrence
, 1600; stolen in 1969
In October 1969, two thieves entered the
Nativity with St. Francis and St. Lawrence from its frame.
[113] Experts estimated its value at $20 million.
[114] [115]
Following the theft,
Italian mafia members have stated that
Nativity with St. Francis and St. Lawrence was stolen by the
Sicilian Mafia and displayed at important mafia gatherings.
[116] Former mafia members have said that the
Nativity was damaged and has since been destroyed.
[116]
The whereabouts of the painting are still unknown. A reproduction currently hangs in its place in the Oratory of San Lorenzo.[116]
In December 1984, Saint Jerome Writing (Caravaggio, Valletta) was stolen from the St. John's Co-Cathedral, Malta. The canvas was cut out of the frame. The painting was recovered two years later, following negotiations between the thieves and Fr. Marius J. Zerafa, then the Director of Museums in Malta. A full account of the theft and successful recovery had been recorded by Fr. Marius J. Zerafa in his book Caravaggio Diaries .
Cultural legacy
Caravaggio's work has been widely influential in late-20th-century American gay culture, with frequent references to male sexual imagery in paintings such as
In 2013, a touring Caravaggio exhibition called "Burst of Light: Caravaggio and His Legacy" opened in the Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art in Hartford, Connecticut.[119] The show included five paintings by the master artist that included Saint John the Baptist in the Wilderness (1604–1605) and Martha and Mary Magdalene (1589). The whole travelled to France and also to Los Angeles, California. Other Baroque artists like Georges de La Tour , Orazio Gentileschi , and the Spanish trio of Diego Velazquez, Francisco de Zurbarán, and Carlo Saraceni were also included in the exhibitions.
In 2022 a new biopic about Caravaggio was released: L'Ombra di Caravaggio , an Italian-French movie directed by Michele Placido .[120]
Caravaggio was prominently featured as motif in Steven Zaillian's Netflix series Ripley , based on Patricia Highsmith's book The Talented Mr. Ripley . The murder of Rannucchio is also depicted. Caravaggio is portrayed by Daniele Rienzo.[121] [122] [123]
See also
References
Citations
^ Carminati, Marco (25 February 2007). "Caravaggio da Milano" (in Italian). Retrieved 28 July 2016 .
^ "Caravaggio - The Complete Works - caravaggio-foundation.org" . www.caravaggio-foundation.org .
^ Vincenzio Fanti (1767). Descrizzione Completa di Tutto Ciò che Ritrovasi nella Galleria di Sua Altezza Giuseppe Wenceslao del S.R.I. Principe Regnante della Casa di Lichtenstein (in Italian). Trattner. p. 21.
^ "Italian Painter Michelangelo Amerighi da Caravaggio" . Gettyimages.it. 24 October 2003. Retrieved 20 July 2013 .
^ "Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da (Italian painter, 1571–1610)" . Getty.edu. Retrieved 18 November 2012 .
^ Quoted in Gilles Lambert, "Caravaggio", p.8.
^ Confirmed by the finding in February 2007 of his baptism certificate from the Milanese parish of Santo Stefano in Brolo. "Biografía de Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi) (1571–1610)" . Italica.rai.it. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009. Retrieved 18 November 2012 .
^ "Paris Art Studies Caravaggio" . parisartstudies.com. 2009. Archived from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 21 May 2013 .
^ Malta Culture Guide Archived 29 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved 21 February 2017
.
^ Harris, p. 21.
^ Rosa Giorgi, ": Master of light and dark – his life in paintings", p.12.
^ Quoted without attribution in Robb, p.35, apparently based on the three primary sources, Mancini, Baglione and Bellori, all of whom depict Caravaggio's early Roman years as a period of extreme poverty (see references below).
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^ Giovanni Pietro Bellori, Le Vite de' pittori, scultori, et architetti moderni , 1672: "Michele was forced by necessity to enter the services of Cavalier Giuseppe d'Arpino, by whom he was employed to paint flowers and fruits so realistically that they began to attain the higher beauty that we love so much today."
^ Harris, Ann Sutherland, Seventeenth-century Art & Architecture (Upper Saddle River: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2008).
^ "Caravaggio" . Hort.purdue.edu. Retrieved 18 November 2012 .
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^ Catherine Puglisi, "Caravaggio", p. 79. Longhi was with Caravaggio on the night of the fatal brawl with Tomassoni; Robb, "M", p.341, believes that Minniti was as well.
^ H. Waga "Vita nota e ignota dei virtuosi al Pantheon" Rome 1992, Appendix I, pp. 219 and 220ff
^ "The earliest account of Caravaggio in Rome" Sandro Corradini and Maurizio Marini, The Burlington Magazine , pp. 25–28
^ Robb, p. 79. Robb is drawing on Bellori, who praises Caravaggio's "true" colours but finds the naturalism offensive: "He (Caravaggio) was satisfied with [the] invention of nature without further exercising his brain."
^ Bellori. The passage continues: "[The younger painters] outdid each other in copying him, undressing their models and raising their lights; and rather than setting out to learn from study and instruction, each readily found in the streets or squares of Rome both masters and models for copying nature."
ISBN
978-1-892850-00-3 . Retrieved 5 March 2021 . For the details of the discovery, see this essay by eye-witness Noel Barber (superior of the Jesuit community in Dublin in which the painting was rediscovered.)
{{cite book }}
: CS1 maint: postscript (link )
^ For an outline of the Counter-Reformation Church's policy on decorum in art, see Giorgi, p.80. For a more detailed discussion, see Gash, p.8ff; and for a discussion of the part played by notions of decorum in the rejection of "St Matthew and the Angel" and "Death of the Virgin", see Puglisi, pp.179–188.
^ Quoted without attribution in Lambert, p.66.
^ a b c d e f Sammut, E. (1949). "Caravaggio in Malta" (PDF) . Scientia . 15 (2): 78–89. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2018. Retrieved 23 February 2017 .
^ . Retrieved 28 June 2010 .
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^ Baglione, Giovanni (1642). Le Vite de' Pittori, Scultori et Architetti. Dal Pontificato di Gregorio XII del 1572 in fino a' tempi di Papa Urbano VIII nel 1642 . Rome. pp. 136–139.
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^ Mancini: "Thus one can understand how badly some modern artists paint, such as those who, wishing to portray the Virgin Our Lady, depict some dirty prostitute from the Ortaccio, as Michelangelo da Caravaggio did in the Death of the Virgin in that painting for the Madonna della Scala, which for that very reason those good fathers rejected it, and perhaps that poor man suffered so much trouble in his lifetime."
^ Baglione: "For the [church of] Madonna della Scala in Trastevere he painted the death of the Madonna, but because he had portrayed the Madonna with little decorum, swollen and with bare legs, it was taken away, and the Duke of Mantua bought it and placed it in his most noble gallery."
. Retrieved 11 July 2019 .
^ While Gianni Papi's identification of Cecco del Caravaggio as Francesco Boneri is widely accepted, the evidence connecting Boneri to Caravaggio's servant and model in the early 17th century is circumstantial. See Robb, pp193–196.
^ "Caravaggio's Untold Secrets" .
^ Bellori, p. 215.
^ Mariano Luigi Patrizi, Il Caravaggio e la nova critica d'arte: un pittore criminale. Ricostruzione psicologica , R. Simboli, 1921, p. 158.
^ Calvesi 1986, pp. 8–9.
^ Calvesi 1986, p. 8.
^ Floris Claes van Dijk, a contemporary of Caravaggio in Rome in 1601, quoted in John Gash, "Caravaggio", p. 13. The quotation originates in Karel van Mander 's Het Schilder-Boek of 1604, translated in full in Howard Hibbard, "Caravaggio".
^ "CARAVAGGIO IN GENOA. HYPOTHESIS FOR AN INSPIRATION" . Speculum Artis . 22 September 2020. Retrieved 23 April 2021 .
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^ Baglione, Giovanni (1642). Life of Caravaggio . Italy. Archived from the original on 1 November 2013. Retrieved 30 October 2013 .
Because of the excessive ardour of his spirit Michelangelo was a little wild and he sometimes looked for the chance to break his neck or to risk the lives of others. People as quarrelsome as he were often to be found in his company: and having, in the end, confronted Ranuccio Tomassoni, a well-mannered young man, over some disagreement about a tennis match they challenged one another to a duel. After Ranuccio fell to the ground, Michelangelo struck him with the point of his sword and, having wounded him in the thigh, killed him.
^ Milner, Catherine (2 June 2002). "Red-blooded Caravaggio killed love rival in bungled castration attempt" . London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 17 March 2014 .
^ Willey, David (18 February 2011). "Caravaggio's crimes exposed in Rome's police files" . bbc. Retrieved 28 November 2015 .
^ Watkins, Ally (24 February 2011). "Caravaggio's Rap Sheet Reveals Him to Have Been a Lawless Sword-Obsessed Wildman, and a Terrible Renter" . Artinfo. Retrieved 18 November 2012 .
^ Costanza's brother Ascanio was Cardinal-Protector of the Kingdom of Naples; another brother, Marzio, was an advisor to the Spanish Viceroy; and a sister was married into the important Neapolitan Carafa family. Caravaggio stayed in Costanza's palazzo on his return to Naples in 1609. These connections are treated in most biographies and studies—see, for example, Catherine Puglisi, "Caravaggio", p.258, for a brief outline. Helen Langdon, "Caravaggio: A Life", ch.12 and 15, and Peter Robb, "M", pp.398ff and 459ff, give a fuller account.
.
.
^ Varriano (2006), pp. 74, 116.
^ .
.
^ Sciberras, Keith (April 2002). "Frater Michael Angelus in tumultu: the cause of Caravaggio's imprisonment in Malta". The Burlington Magazine (CXLV): 229–232. and Sciberras, Keith (July 2002). "Riflessioni su Malta al tempo del Caravaggio". Paragone Arte . LII (629): 3–20. Sciberras' findings are summarised online at Caravaggio.com Archived 10 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine
^ The senior Knights of the Order convened on 1 December 1608 and, after verifying that the accused had failed to appear, although summoned four times, voted unanimously to expel their putridum et foetidum ex-brother. Caravaggio was expelled, not for his crime, but for having left Malta without permission (i.e., escaping).
^ Langdon, p.365.
^ Baglione says that Caravaggio in Naples had "given up all hope of revenge" against his unnamed enemy.
^ According to a 17th-century writer, the painting of the head of Goliath is a self-portrait of the artist, while David is il suo Caravaggino , "his little Caravaggio". This phrase is obscure, but it has been interpreted as meaning either that the boy is a youthful self-portrait or, more commonly, that this is the Cecco who modeled for the Amor Vincit . The sword-blade carries an abbreviated inscription that has been interpreted as meaning Humility Conquers Pride. Attributed to a date in Caravaggio's late Roman period by Bellori, the recent tendency is to see it as a product of Caravaggio's second Neapolitan period. (See Gash, p.125).
Bishop of Caserta
in Naples to Cardinal Scipione Borghese in Rome, dated 29 July 1610, informs the Cardinal that the Marchesa of Caravaggio is holding two John the Baptists and a Magdalene that were intended for Borghese. These were presumably the price of Caravaggio's pardon from Borghese's uncle, the pope.
.
^ a b c Laura Geggel (28 September 2018). "Renaissance Master Caravaggio Didn't Die of Syphilis, but of Sepsis" . Live Science . Retrieved 30 September 2018 .
^ Robb argues this in M beginning in chapter 20.
^ "Caravaggio's Remains" . The Florentine . 1 July 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2021 .
^ "Church bones 'belong to Caravaggio', researchers say" . BBC News. 16 June 2010. Retrieved 18 November 2012 .
^ Tom Kington (16 June 2010). "The mystery of Caravaggio's death solved at last – painting killed him" . The Guardian . London. Retrieved 18 November 2012 .
.
^ Milner, Catherine (1 June 2002). "Red-blooded Caravaggio killed love rival in bungled castration attempt" . Archived from the original on 4 June 2023 – via The Telegraph.
on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2019 .
^ Hibbard, p.97
^ Louis Crompton, Homosexuality and Civilization (Harvard, 2006) p.288
^ a b c Andrew Graham-Dixon, Caravaggio: A life sacred and profane , Penguin, 2011, p.4
^ Bertolotti, Artisti Lombardi . pp.71–72
^ Catheine Puglisi, "Caravaggio" Phaidon 1998, p.199
^ Riccardo Bassani and Fiora Bellini, "Caravaggio assassino", 1994, pp.205–214
^ a b Andrew Graham-Dixon, Caravaggio: A life sacred and profane , Penguin, 2011
^ "Masculi, relicto naturali usu faeminae, exarserunt in desideriis suis in invicem, masculi in masculos turpitudinem operantes, et mercedem quam oportuit erroris sui in semetipsis recipientes. "" – Romans I:27.
^ Mirabeau, Honoré (1867). Erotika Biblion . Chevalier de Pierrugues. Chez tous les Libraries.
^ Burton, Richard Francis (1900). A Plain and Literal Translation of "Arabian Nights." . Vol. 10. Press of The Carson-Harper Company.
.
^ The transcript of the trial is given in Walter Friedlander, "Caravaggio Studies" (Princeton, 1955, revised edn. 1969)
^ Andrew Graham-Dixon, Caravaggio: A life sacred and profane , Penguin, 2011, p.412
^ " "LGBT artists sent messages from the closet to survive before Stonewall. Now, homophobes are coopting the technique." Washington Post , June 10, 2019" . The Washington Post .
^ Lambert, p.11.
^ Much of the documentary evidence for Caravaggio's life in Rome comes from court records; the "artichoke" case refers to an occasion when the artist threw a dish of hot artichokes at a waiter.
^ Robb, passim , makes a fairly exhaustive attempt to identify models and relate them to individual canvases.
^ Caravaggio's self-portraits run from the Sick Bacchus at the beginning of his career to the head of Goliath in the David with the Head of Goliath in Rome's Borghese Gallery. Previous artists had included self-portraits as onlookers to the action, but Caravaggio's innovation was to include himself as a participant.
^ Gregori, Mina, Luigi Salerno, and Richard E. Spear, The Age of Caravaggio , Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1985
^ Caravaggism at the Rijksmuseum
^ Wikkkower, p. 266; also see criticism by fellow Italian Vincenzo Carducci (living in Spain), who calls Caravaggio an "Antichrist" of painting with "monstrous" talents of deception.
^ Ostrow, 608
^ Roberto Longhi, quoted in Lambert, op. cit., p.15
^ Bernard Berenson, in Lambert, op. cit., p.8
.
^ Inscriptiones et Elogia (Cod.Vat.7927)
^ Alfred Moir, "Caravaggio", p.9
^ Alberge, Dalya (19 June 2011). "Unknown Caravaggio painting unearthed in Britain" . The Guardian . London. Retrieved 20 June 2011 .
^ Philippe Dagen et Emmanuelle Jardonnet, Un Caravage a-t-il été découvert dans un grenier en France ? in Le Monde, 12 April 2016
^ "Painting thought to be Caravaggio masterpiece found in French loft" . BBC News Online . 12 April 2016. Retrieved 12 April 2016 .
^ 'Lost Caravaggio,' found in a French attic, causes rift in the art world , The Guardian , Angelique Chrisafis, 12 April 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
^ Brown, Mark (28 February 2019). " 'Lost Caravaggio' rejected by the Louvre may be worth £100m" . The Guardian . Retrieved 1 March 2019 .
^ " 'Toulouse Caravaggio' acquired in private deal prior to €100m auction" . Antiques trade gazette . 29 June 2019. Retrieved 10 November 2021 .
^ "Toulouse : où est passé le tableau de Caravage vendu 110 millions de dollars ?" . La Dépêche du Midi . 4 October 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2021 .
^ Caravaggio, Judith and Holofernes Archived 14 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine , auction catalogue 2019
^ Jonathan Jones, Discovery in a Toulouse attic is no Caravaggio in: The Art Newspaper, 3 April 2019
^ Olivier Morand, La Judith de Toulouse, Le chef d'oeuvre de Louis Finson
^ Reyburn, Scott (8 April 2021). "Possible Caravaggio Is Withdrawn From Auction; Spain Announces Export Ban" . The New York Times .
^ Tondo, Lorenzo; Jones, Sam (23 April 2021). " 'Damn, this is a Caravaggio!': the inside story of an old master found in Spain" . The Guardian .
^ "The rediscovered Caravaggio: here is the truth about the owners of the Ecce Homo" . Italy 24 News. 23 April 2021. Archived from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2021 .
^ Davis-Marks, Isis (13 April 2021). "Baroque Painting Almost Sold for €1,500 May Be a Caravaggio Worth Millions" . Smithsonian .
^ Parra, Aritz (8 April 2021). "Spain: Work due for auction from $1,800 may be a Caravaggio" . ABC News .
^ Kirchgaessner, Stephanie (10 December 2015). " 'Restitution of a lost beauty': Caravaggio Nativity replica brought to Palermo" . The Guardian . London. Retrieved 19 December 2018 .
^ "FBI — Caravaggio" . Fbi.gov. 17 September 2012. Archived from the original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2012 .
^ Sooke, Alastair (23 December 2013). "Caravaggio's Nativity: Hunting a stolen masterpiece" . BBC . Retrieved 24 December 2013 .
^ a b c "The World's Most Expensive Stolen Paintings – BBC Two" . BBC . Retrieved 30 October 2016 .
^ .
^ "Revisiting Derek Jarman's Caravaggio" . British Film Institute.
^ Landi, Ann (March 2013). "Art Talk: Dark Shadows". ARTnews . New York: ARTneww LLC. p. 38.
^ The film had its world premiere on October 18, 2022 at the Festa del Cinema di Roma .
^ Article, Min Chen ShareShare This (9 April 2024). "As Seen on 'Ripley': The Brutal Art and Life of Caravaggio" . Artnet News . Retrieved 10 May 2024 .
. Retrieved 10 May 2024 .
^ Connellan, Shannon (9 April 2024). "Netflix's 'Ripley' is full of Caravaggio references — here's why" . Mashable . Retrieved 10 May 2024 .
Primary sources
The main primary sources for Caravaggio's life are:
Giulio Mancini's comments on Caravaggio in Considerazioni sulla pittura , c. 1617–1621
Giovanni Baglione's Le vite de' pittori , 1642
Giovanni Pietro Bellori's Le Vite de' pittori, scultori et architetti moderni , 1672
All have been reprinted in Howard Hibbard's Caravaggio and in the appendices to Catherine Puglisi's Caravaggio .
Secondary sources
Andrea Bayer (2004). Painters of reality : the legacy of Leonardo and Caravaggio in Lombardy . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. .
Erin Benay (2017) Exporting Caravaggio: the Crucifixion of St. Andrew Giles Press Ltd.
Ralf van Bühren , Caravaggio's 'Seven Works of Mercy' in Naples. The relevance of art history to cultural journalism , in Church, Communication and Culture 2 (2017), pp. 63–87
Claudio Strinati, Caravaggio Vero , Scripta Maneant, 2014, .
Maurizio Calvesi, Caravaggio , Art Dossier 1986, Giunti Editori (1986) (ISBN not available)
Maurizio Calvesi (1990). Le realtà del Caravaggio (in Italian). Torino: G. Einaudi. .
John Denison Champlin
and Charles Callahan Perkins, Ed., Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings , Charles Scribner's Sons, New York (1885), p. 241 (available at the Harvard's Fogg Museum Library and scanned on Google Books)
Keith Christiansen (1990). A Caravaggio Rediscovered, The Lute Player . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. .
Andrea Dusio, Caravaggio White Album , Cooper Arte, Roma 2009,
Michael Fried, The Moment of Caravaggio , Yale University Press, 2010, ISB: 9780691147017, Review
Walter Friedlaender, Caravaggio Studies, Princeton: Princeton University Press 1955
John Gash, Caravaggio , Chaucer Press, (2004) )
Rosa Giorgi, Caravaggio: Master of light and dark – his life in paintings , Dorling Kindersley (1999)
Jonathan Harr (2005). The Lost Painting: The Quest for a Caravaggio Masterpiece . New York: Random House. ["The Taking of Christ"]
Howard Hibbard, Caravaggio (1983)
Harris, Ann Sutherland. Seventeenth-century Art & Architecture , Laurence King Publishing (2004), .
Pietro Koch, Caravaggio – The Painter of Blood and Darkness , Gunther Edition, (Rome – 2004)
Gilles Lambert, Caravaggio , Taschen, (2000)
Helen Langdon, Caravaggio: A Life , Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999 (original UK edition 1998)
Denis Mahon (1947). Studies in Seicento Art . London: Warburg Institute.
Ostrow, Steven F., review of Giovanni Baglione: Artistic Reputation in Baroque Rome by Maryvelma Smith O'Neil, The Art Bulletin, Vol. 85, No. 3 (Sep. 2003), pp. 608–611,
online text
Catherine Puglisi, Caravaggio , Phaidon (1998)
Rudolph, Conrad; Ostrow, Steven F. (2001). "Isaac Laughing : Caravaggio, non-traditional imagery and traditional identification" . Art History . 24 (5): 646–681. .
John L. Varriano, Caravaggio: The Art of Realism , Pennsylvania State University Press (University Park, PA – 2006)
Thornhill, Annabelle (2015). Caravaggio: Paintings in Close Up . Osmora Incorporated. .
Bouchard, Giovanni Angelo (1791). Sanctae Matris Nostrae catholicae ecclesiae dogmatum et morum ex selectis veterum patrum operibus veritas demonstrata seu Veterum patrum theologia vniuersa tribus partibus constans quarum prima agit de Ecclesiasticis dogmatibus, secunda de Sacramentis, tertia de Moribus. Tomus primus [-decimus tertius et ultimus]: 7 (in Latin). Florence. p. 270.
Zerafa, Fr. Marius J. (2004). Caravaggio Diaries. Grimand Company Limited. ISBN 99932-0-322-X.
External links
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