Duchy of Brittany
Duchy of Brittany | |||||||||||
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939–1547 | |||||||||||
Top: Ducal and state flag
Bottom: The Kroaz Du was the flag used by the independent duchy in the Middle Ages | |||||||||||
Motto: Kentoc'h mervel eget bezañ saotret ( Poitevin | |||||||||||
Government | Feudal monarchy | ||||||||||
Duke | |||||||||||
• 1514–1524 | Claude (last) | ||||||||||
Legislature | Union with France | 13 August 1547 | |||||||||
Currency | Various[1] | ||||||||||
|
The Duchy of Brittany (
The independent sovereign nature of the Duchy began to come to an end upon the death of
Following the French Revolution, and as a result of the various republican forms of French government since 1792, the duchy was replaced by the French system of départements (or departments) which continues under the Fifth Republic of France. In modern times the departments have also joined into administrative regions[c] although the administrative region of Brittany does not encompass the entirety of the medieval duchy.
Background
Origins
The Duchy of Brittany that emerged in the early 10th century was influenced by several earlier polities.
Brittany fragmented into small, warring regna, kingdoms, each competing for resources.[8] The Frankish Carolingian Empire conquered the region during the 8th century, starting around 748 taking the whole of Brittany by 799.[9] The Carolingians tried to create a unitary administration around the centres of Rennes, Nantes, and Vannes using the local rulers, but the kings of Brittany's hold on the region remained tenuous.[10][11][12] Carolingian technology and culture began to influence Brittany, and the church in Brittany also began to emulate the Frankish model. [3]
The greatest influence on the later Duchy, however, was the formation of a unitary Brittany kingdom in the 9th century.
The new kingdom proved fragile and collapsed under Viking attack.
After Alan I's death in 907, Brittany was overrun once again by Vikings.
History
10th century
The Duchy of Brittany emerged after Alan Barbetorte's return to the region from England in 936.
Alan II was also allied to
Under Drogo, the duchy continued to experience political instability and he was unable to sustain his line. Drogo died in 958. Two of Alan II's illegitimate sons,
11th century
The 11th century was marked by a failed alliance with Normandy.
At around eight years of age, Conan II succeeded his father Alan III as Duke of Brittany, with the ducal regency entrusted to Alan's brother
The 1064–1065 war between Brittany and Normandy (the Breton-Norman War) was sparked after Duke William supported the rebellion against Conan II led by
William the Conqueror successfully invaded England in 1066 with an army that included some Bretons. William was able to attract Bretons into his expeditionary army for the upcoming campaign to claim the English crown.,
Also in 1066,
However, the historic rivalry between Brittany and Normandy resurfaced at the close of the 11th century. By 1075, Hoèl returned to the traditional Breton policy of opposing Norman expansion with an alliance with the young king Philip I of France.[32] Ralph de Gael, in exile in Brittany after the unsuccessful 1075 rebellion in England, led incursions into Normandy from his base in Dol.[32] In 1076, King William of England retaliated by leading an army into Brittany to eject Ralph, but was met with a rare defeat by an allied army of Bretons and French forces.[32] In the peace negotiations which followed William offered his second daughter Constance in marriage to the Breton heir Alan IV, though nothing came of the betrothal at the time.
By 1086,
In 1092, Alan IV donated property to
12th century
Alan IV returned from Crusade in 1101. In 1112, Alan IV's son Conan III inherited Brittany on the abdication of his father, who retired to the
During the
Conan III sought to counter Angevin influence and preserve Breton independence. In his alliance with Stephen, Conan III looked for greater influence with Stephen, who needed allies on the continent to out-flank Matilda. Matilda was able to consolidate power in Normandy and Anjou. Brittany's position to the west of the Angevin controlled territory exposed a wide frontier for Stephen to exploit against Matilda.
In 1138, Conan III's daughter, Bertha, was married to Alan of Penthièvre, a supporter of King Stephen. For his support, Stephan created Conan's son-in-law Alan as 1st Earl of Richmond in the second creation, a title previously held by Alan's uncle Alain Le Roux. Later, when Alan died in 1146, Bertha returned home to Brittany from England. On his death-bed in 1148, Conan III disinherited his son Hoel, Count of Nantes from succession to the duchy. With this surprise move, Bertha became his heiress and successor as hereditary Duchess of Brittany. However, Hoel was to retain the county of Nantes.
Duchess Bertha, as
On the death of Bertha in early 1156, her son, Conan IV, expected to inherit the ducal throne. However, he was denied his inheritance by his stepfather Odo, Viscount of Porhoët (also known as Odo II), Bertha's second husband; Odo II refused to relinquish his authority over Brittany. To consolidate his hold on power, Odo II entered into a pact with the disinherited Hoel, Count of Nantes, to divide Brittany between them. But at the same time, Hoel was under threat of rebellion in Nantes, sponsored by Geoffrey Fitzempress, and he could not send any aid to Eudas. Conan IV landed in Brittany and took Rennes, while his ally Raoul de Fougères captured and imprisoned Eudas. Conan IV was formally enthroned as Duke of Brittany in Rennes. While Conan IV was consolidating his inheritance in 1156, Geoffrey FitzEmpress successfully took Nantes from Hoel.
Upon Geoffrey's death in 1158, Conan IV seized Nantes, reuniting the Duchy once again. However, Henry II, now King of England, seized the Earldom of Richmond, Conan's paternal inheritance. Henry demanded the return of Nantes, and when he obtained control of it from Conan IV, became the Count of Nantes, without obligation to the Duke of Brittany (later dukes would eventually reunite Nantes to Brittany).
Henry II of England continued to stoke revolts and rebellions in Brittany against Conan IV. In response, Conan IV took the Breton counties of Tréguier and Guingamp from his uncle Count Henri, a supporter of Henry II of England. Richmond was returned to Conan IV later that year in an agreement reached with Henry II of England. By 1160 Conan was forced to yield to Henry. In the peace negotiations which followed, Conan was obliged to marry Henry's cousin, Margaret of Scotland, in 1160.
Later, Conan IV was faced with additional revolts from barons, possibly sponsored by Henry II. Conan appealed to Henry II for aid to end the revolts. For his aid Henry II insisted on the betrothal of Conan's only daughter and heiress Constance to Henry's son Geoffrey Plantagenet, continuing the policy of interweaving the Breton succession with the Plantagenet's succession.
Upon her father's abdication in 1166, Constance became duchess, although Henry II held the Duchy until Constance married Geoffrey. Geoffrey and Constance ruled jointly until 1186, when Geoffrey was
To promote her son's position and inheritance, Constance, Duchess of Brittany included Arthur in the government of Brittany in 1196. The same year, Constance's marriage with Ranulph deteriorated, with Ranulph imprisoning Constance. Her imprisonment sparked rebellion across Brittany on her behalf. Ranulph bowed to growing pressure and had the Duchess released in 1198. Once back in Brittany, Constance had her marriage to Ranulph annulled in 1199 (there was no issue from this marriage). Later that year, Constance took
13th century
In the 13th century England's alliance with Brittany collapsed under King
Recognizing that John of England could have Eleanor married to a vassal loyal to England, who would rule Brittany through her, Philip II formally recognized Constance's infant daughter Alix as hereditary Duchess of Brittany. Initially Alix's father Guy of Thouars acted as regent. Philip II of France was maneuvering to keep Brittany within his sphere of influence. The marriage of the infant Alix to Capetian cadet
In 1235, the stage was set for the next century's
Beginning in the 13th century, the Duchy of Brittany experienced nearly a century of peace. Peter I continued as Regent for a time for his son John I. When John I reached his majority, Peter I ceded him the Ducal crown and left Brittany on Crusade.[citation needed] John I married Blanche of Navarre. Upon the death of his sister Yolande of Brittany, John I seized the countship of Penthièvre for himself. John I in turn was succeeded by his son John II. John II married Beatrice of England and ruled until 1305.
14th century
In the 14th century, the Breton War of Succession ensued; the title of Duke passed to the House of Montfort. John II died in 1305 and was succeeded by this son, Arthur II as Duke. Arthur II ruled independently of the French crown. His reign included several administrative innovations including the creation of several "battles" or districts meant to provide a stronger defense, and the creation of the Estates of Brittany, marking a critical step towards a parliamentary form of government. Arthur II's reign is also distinguished by his two marriages, the first to Mary of Limoges and the second to Yolande of Dreux, Queen of Scotland.
Arthur II's son by Mary of Limoges, John III became Duke but failed to produce a living heir, despite three marriages. John III's succession efforts were focused on his attempts to deny his half brother, John of Montfort from inheriting the Ducal Crown. He attempted to name the King of France as heir in an act that defied all precedents to maintain Brittany as an independent sovereign state. The Breton nobles predictably rejected the attempt and Brittany's independence continued. John III died in 1341 without a succession plan.
John III's half-brother, John of Montfort, claimed the title of Duke, but his claim was rejected by the King of France who favored the competing claims of
During the war, John of Montfort was imprisoned in Paris. Hostilities abated for a short time, and he was freed under the Treaty of Malestroit in 1341. He died in 1345, leaving his son John as the Montfort claimant to the ducal title. John's widowed Duchess Consort,
The House of Montfort's victory strengthened the position of England in
15th century
The intrigues and contests between the House of Montfort and the House of Penthièvre continued well after the Breton War of Succession. John IV's successor, John V, Duke of Brittany, was kidnapped by the grandson of Joan of Penthièvre. He was freed through the efforts of his wife the Duchess of Brittany, Joan of France and the remaining wealth of the Penthièvre family was confiscated. John V was succeeded first by his son Francis I. Since Francis I had no male heir, he was followed by a younger son of John V, Peter II. When Peter II died without issue, the Ducal Crown passed to his uncle Arthur III. He was, in turn, succeeded by his nephew Francis II.
The reign of Francis II was notable in many respects including two wars against
Francis II worked to seek a husband for Anne who would be strong enough to defend Brittany from further influence from the French Crown. Duchesse Anne of Brittany was initially betrothed to
However, relations between Brittany and France deteriorated and Francis II was forced into the last Franco-Breton war, which he lost. At the end of the second war between Francis II and Charles VIII of France, the so-called
In 1499, the birth of Anne of Brittany's sole heir with Louis XII of France, her daughter Claude of France, introduced a new succession issue in Brittany and France. In Brittany, with the provisions of the Treaty of Guerande set aside by the Estates of Brittany, Claude could claim to be Duchess of Brittany in her own right, as several Duchesses by right of inheritance had done over the centuries. France, however operated under strict Salic law, requiring a male heir. The French requirement was solved upon Claude's marriage to Francis I of France. The birth of Claude's sons Francis (who became Francis III, Duke of Brittany, as well as the Dauphin of France) and Henry II of France represented a resolution to these contrasting succession issues but accelerated the loss of Brittany's independence and the eventual disappearance of the Ducal title as an independent sovereign Ducal crown.
16th century
Anne of Brittany's second marriage making her Queen Consort of France continued into the 16th century; and she died in 1514. Queen Claude of France, reigned as duchess of Brittany from 1514, but under her husband king Francis was not able to maintain an independent government in the Duchy of Brittany. Claude's son Francis I was invested as duke of Brittany. But this act meant next to nothing to advance Breton independence. Some members of the House of Penthièvre were appointed as royal governors of Brittany by the French. Their failure to reassert their Ducal rights successfully hastened the merger of the Ducal crown into the Kingdom of France. At this time the title Duke of Brittany began to lose independent sovereign status and began to become only titular in character; the Breton region lost independence and became a province of France.[citation needed]
During the Middle Ages, the Kings of France considered that the Duchy of Brittany was feudally a part of their Kingdom of France (i.e. it was within the traditional borders of the realm, and the King of France was deemed to be overlord of the Duchy). In practice, however, the Duchy of Brittany was a largely independent sovereign state.
The independent sovereign nature of the Duchy began to come to an end upon the death of Francis II, Duke of Brittany. The Duchy was inherited by his daughter, Anne, but King Charles VIII of France, determined to bring the territory under royal control, had her marriage annulled and then forced her to marry him in a series of actions that were acknowledged by the Pope. As a result, the Kingdom of France and the Duchy of Brittany were placed in the personal union of their marriage, and the King of France also held the title of Duke of Brittany jure uxoris. During their marriage, Charles VIII prohibited Anne of Brittany from using the title Duchess of Brittany, and imposed a Royal Governor from the House of Penthièvre on the Duchy.
Legally, however, the Duchy remained separate from France proper; the two titles were linked only by the marriage of the King and Queen and, in 1498 when Charles VIII died childless, the title Duke of Brittany remained with Anne, rather than passing to the heir of France, Louis XII. Anne of Brittany returned to Brittany and began to re-establish an independent sovereign rule. However, the new French king, Louis XII married Anne himself, and so the King of France was once more Duke of Brittany jure uxoris. Legally, Brittany still remained distinct, and its future remained dependent on the Ducal bloodline, now held by the House of Montfort. When Anne died, Brittany passed to her daughter and heiress, Claude, rather than remaining with the King of France, her father.
Claude married the future King of France, Francis I. By this marriage, and through the succession to the French crown, the King of France became Duke of Brittany jure uxoris once more. Claude's death in 1524 separated the Duchy from the crown again, and (it would transpire) for the final time. Because Claude, like her mother, was sovereign Duchess, the title of 'Duke' did not remain with her husband, but instead passed to her son, Francis III of Brittany, who was also Dauphin of France. Legally, the Crown and Duchy were again separate, but the Duke was a child, and the Duchy had been governed as an integral part of France for years; the King had little trouble in maintaining royal control over the Duchy. Breton independence was effectively ended when in 1532 the Estates of Brittany proclaimed the perpetual union of Brittany with the French crown. Legally, the Duchy was part of France.
Francis III remained Duke of Brittany, but died without attaining the French crown in 1536. He was succeeded by his brother Henry, who was the first person to become both King of France and Duke of Brittany in his own right. Any trace of Breton independence ended with the ascension of Henry, as Henry II of France, to the French throne. The French Crown and Breton Duchy were now united by inheritance, and the merging of Brittany into France was thus completed. Henry II was not crowned separately as Duke of Brittany. However Henry attempted to create a separate legal status for Brittany vis-a-vis the Kingdom of France similar to the position of the Duchy of Cornwall to the Kingdom of Great Britain.[citation needed] In some histories it is meant to be a ducal territory he would attempt to preserve for himself and his heirs if he were to lose the French Crown. This attempt at legal separation did not survive his reign.
When Henry III (last direct male from Claude of France) died, Brittany passed as part of the Crown to the next heir of France, Henry of Navarre, rather than to Claude's most senior heirs (either Henry II, Duke of Lorraine or Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia). While these nobles were technically Henry's heirs, there were problems with both claimants to the Ducal crown. The most important issue was that the crown, as a Sovereign Duke, could not be separated from that of the French Crown. Meanwhile, the French Crown and the Spanish Crown had been permanently separated beginning with the reign of Philip of Spain.
In 1582, Henry III of France, last living male-line grandson of
The title Duke of Brittany largely ceased to be used as a title of the King of France. When it appeared the title was bestowed by the King of France to one of his direct descendants, and was in any event titular in status.
17th and 18th centuries
Under the Kings of France the nobles of Brittany continued to enjoy the privileges that had been accorded them by the various independent Dukes of Brittany. Brittany's Celtic legal traditions were maintained, to a degree, and the Estates of Brittany and the Parlement of Rennes were kept separate from the French parliamentary system in Paris. The Breton noble privileges protected in this parliamentary system included exemption from taxes, representation in the Breton Parlement, and the maintenance of Breton titles in the tradition of the Duchy rather than that of France, including, in theory, the application of Brittany's form of semi-Salic, rather than pure Salic Law to the succession issues.
After
Claims on the titular Ducal title by Spanish nobles at various times were not to be considered legitimate by the French, and its use by Louis XIV demonstrated that as the title had merged into the crown of France only the King could assert the title himself or bestow it on another. Louis XIV's actions with regard to the Ducal title also underscored the fact that the Spanish or cadet branch of the House of Bourbon had relinquished all French claims and inheritance rights as a condition of gaining the crown of Spain under the
Shortly before the French Revolution the leaders of the Parlement of Rennes issued Remonstrances to
When French King Louis XVI dissolved the Breton Parlement he did so to strengthen his claims as an absolute monarch (where a representative parliament was not necessary). He also did this to advance a centralized federal form of government, but in so doing preserved the nature of the Brittany's autonomy by acknowledging its nobles' traditional privileges, and acted as the Duke of Brittany.
The Breton Parlement has not met since this event. During the French Revolution, the legal state of Brittany was dissolved by the French National Assembly. The province of Brittany was divided and replaced by the 5 departements that have continued in the modern French Republic.
Society, culture and governance
Economy
The north and western parts of the territory relied on a pastoral farming economy; the south-east enjoyed warmer weather and conducted mixed-arable and pastoral farming, based around small holdings.[41] The region enjoyed a strong and diverse maritime economy including active ports of trade and fishing. Over the time of the Duchy, many currencies were present, and the Dukes of Brittany sometimes minted their own coins. Gold and silver were also used for trade.
Folklore and legends
In the 12th century, legends of Conan Meriadoc became popular in North-West Europe. By the 18th century these accounts had been described as mythical.[42]
A reference is made by the
The chroniclers of Viking raids in Brittany and Normandy recounted that St Olaf raided the northern coast of Brittany in the area of the town of Dol.[44]
Role of the Catholic Church
The Duchy was influenced by the growth of the major monastic orders in the wake of the
Customs and laws
The Duchy that formed in the 10th and the 11th centuries was a feudal society, with laws and customs run through a hierarchy of Breton lords, from the numerous holders of local castles through to the handful of counts and the Duke in the urban centres.[50] This reliance on the mass of local lords was a break with the former Celtic and Carolingian polities in the region.[51] The aristocracy in Breton were, as historians Galliou and Jones describe, "conservative and tenancious" in their outlook, but heavily influenced by French society and culture, which sometimes produced tensions with older, more local traditions and customs.[52]
Rise of parliamentary government
The Estates of Brittany were founded by Arthur II who was considered completely independent of the Kingdom of France. He convoked the first Estates of Brittany in 1309. In addition to creating a parliamentary body, Arthur II added the innovation of including the Third Estate.
These parliamentary bodies figured prominently in the Breton War of Succession and helped to resolve the Ducal Claims of the House of Penthièvre in favor of the House of Montfort. The Estates of Brittany acted during the reign of Francis II, of the House of Montfort, to nullify provisions of the Treaty of Guerande and to confirm that
The Parlement of Rennes was founded in 1485 by Francis II and first met in Vannes. Later the Parlement was moved to Rennes where the Parlement building remains in use to today as a Court of Justice. Initially the Parlement of Rennes functioned as a sovereign court of justice and was designed, among other things, to protect the ancient rights of the Breton nobles. Many of its members were also members of the Estates of Brittany.
After the Duchy of Brittany was merged into the Crown of France, the Parlement of Rennes took on greater responsibility to manage and preserve the rights of the Duchy as separate from the Kingdom of France. While Henry II of France held all rights as Duke of Brittany he was neither frequently present in the Duchy nor entirely inclined to preserve the independent actions of its parliament. As the Kings of France moved to greater centralized authority under Louis XIV of France, Louis XV of France, and Louis XVI of France, tensions between the Kingdom and the Duchy grew. In September 1771, the Parlement was closed by order of Louis XVI of France; the National Assembly subsequently issued a French law to close the Parlement in 1790. The Parlement of Rennes met and they established that these actions had no force of law based on the Breton laws and traditions on which the Parliament had been founded. Notwithstanding this claim, the Parlement of Rennes has not met since 1790.
Richmondshire
Nobles from the Breton Ducal family who fought for William the Conqueror in 1066 were the first Lords of Richmond, and eventually the first in a series of
Francis II was host to Henry Tudor, the future Henry VII of England when he fled England to seek safety from Richard III of England. Brittany's possessions in Richmond passed indisputably to England when Francis II, Duke of Brittany, surrendered his rights to Henry, thereby permitting him to take the title Earl of Richmond.
Legacy
There is no modern-day Duchy of Brittany. The Duchy of Brittany and the sovereign title and role of the Duke of Brittany no longer exist in the modern
See also
- Charles de Blois Châtillon, the Blessed
- Château des ducs de Bretagne (Castle of the Dukes of Brittany) in Nantes
- Dukes of Brittany family tree
- List of religious figures of Brittany
- List of rulers of Brittany
- List of consorts of Brittany
- Union between Brittany and France
Footnotes
- ^ This was the date of the Battle of Trans-la-Fôret
- ^ The year the titles of King of France and Duke of Brittany were joined in one ruler, Henry II of France
- ^ The creation of regions in modern France occurred pursuant to the Law of Decentralisation (2 March 1982)
- ^ Mid-20th-century historians Ferdinand Lot and Nora Kershaw Chadwick argued that this had occurred in response to hostile raids into Britain. But late 20th-century historians, including Patrick Galliou and Michael Jones, have emphasised the paucity of evidence supporting this analysis.[6]
- ^ Brittany was free of any royal French influence until 1123, when Louis VI of France confirmed the bishop of Nantes. See Jones, 1988, page 4.
- ^ The existence of Constance and Guy's third daughter is still disputed.
- ^ Joan of Penthièvre was John of Montfort's half-niece by his half brother, Guy. John III, Guy and John of Montfort were all sons of Arthur II.
- Thomas Woodstock.
- ^ John IV relied on two English military leaders to execute his two military campaigns to regain the Duchy, John Chandos and Thomas Woodstock.
- Henry IV, King of England.
References
- ^ Booton 2010, p. 12.
- ^ a b Jones 1988, p. 2.
- ^ a b Galliou & Jones 1991, p. 130.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, p. 128.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, pp. 128–131.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, pp. 130–131.
- ^ a b Jones 1988, pp. 2–3.
- ^ Smith 1992, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Price 1989, p. 21.
- ^ Smith 1992, pp. 9, 18.
- ^ Everard 2000, p. 9.
- ^ a b Bradbury 2000, p. 57.
- ^ a b c Jones 1988, p. 3.
- ^ Delumeau 1969, p. 524.
- ^ Price 1989, p. 23.
- ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia 1935, p. 1252.
- ^ Price 1989, pp. 25–26.
- ^ Price 1989, p. 355.
- ^ Price 1989, pp. 356–360.
- ^ Price 1989, Appendix Two.
- ^ Price 1989, p. 362.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, pp. 168–169.
- ^ a b Galliou & Jones 1991, p. 169.
- ^ Jones 1988, p. 15.
- ^ Hjardar & Vike 2016, p. 334.
- ^ a b Jones 1988, p. 4.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, pp. 169–170.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, pp. 170–171.
- ^ Bachrach 1993, p. 7.
- ^ Bachrach 1993, p. 8.
- ^ Bachrach 1993, p. 261.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Crouch 2002, p. 36.
- ^ a b c Howarth 2008.
- ^ a b c d e Patterson 2004.
- ^ a b c d Keats-Rohan 1992, p. 3.
- ^ Keats-Rohan 1992, p. 4.
- ^ Everard 2000, p. 17.
- ^ Everard 2000, pp. 17–18.
- ^ Everard 2000, pp. 19–20.
- ^ Small 2009, p. 18.
- ^ Smith 1992, pp. 25–26.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, p. 131.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, pp. 131–132.
- ^ Price 1989, p. 14.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, pp. 267–268.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, p. 268.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, pp. 268–269.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, p. 270.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, pp. 270–272.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, pp. 170–169.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, pp. 171–172.
- ^ Galliou & Jones 1991, p. 172.
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