Dwarf (folklore)

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Two dwarfs as depicted in a 19th-century edition of the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá (1895) by Lorenz Frølich

A dwarf (pl. dwarfs or dwarves) is a type of

Germanic folklore
. Accounts of dwarfs vary significantly throughout history; however, they are commonly, but not exclusively, presented as living in mountains or stones and being skilled craftspeople. In early literary sources, only males are explicitly referred to as dwarfs. However, they are described as having sisters and daughters, while male and female dwarfs feature in later saga literature and folklore. Dwarfs are sometimes described as short; however, scholars have noted that this is neither explicit nor relevant to their roles in the earliest sources.

Dwarfs continue to feature in modern popular culture, such as in the works of

elves
. They are often depicted as miners, smiths, armorers, tailors, carpenters, artisans and mechanics.

Etymology

The modern English noun dwarf descends from

elves.[2]

For forms earlier than the Proto-Germanic reconstruction, the etymology of the word dwarf is highly contested. Scholars have proposed theories about the origins of the being by way of historical linguistics and comparative mythology, including the idea that dwarfs may have originated as nature spirits, as beings associated with death, or as a mixture of concepts. Competing etymologies include a basis in the Indo-European root *dheur- (meaning "damage"), the Indo-European root *dhreugh (whence, for example, modern English "dream" and German Trug "deception"), and scholars have made comparisons with Sanskrit dhvaras (a type of "demonic being").[3]

Modern English has two plurals for the word dwarf: dwarfs and dwarves. Dwarfs remains the most commonly employed plural. The minority plural dwarves was recorded as early as 1818. However, it was later popularized by the fiction of philologist and legendarium author J. R. R. Tolkien, originating as a hypercorrective mistake. It was employed by Tolkien for some time before 1917.[4] Regarding his use of this plural, Tolkien wrote in 1937, "I am afraid it is just a piece of private bad grammar, rather shocking in a philologist; but I shall have to go with it."[4]

Attestations

Eddic sources

Terminology

Scholars have noted that the

name of the god Freyr who was given Álfheimr, the home of the elves, to rule according to Grímnismál.[8][9]

Notable Eddic dwarfs

Main article: List of dwarfs in Norse mythology

Germanic heroic legend and sagas

Siegfried wrestling Alberich, by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld

Continuity with older beliefs

After the

pre-Christian Germanic religion. In contrast, others, such as Schäfke, argue that there is no resemblance between Eddic and skaldic dwarfs and those in later sources.[3][17]

Old Norse

Dwarfs feature throughout both

wergild for his killing of Ótr, a being whose brother Regin is also described in some sources as either resembling or being a dwarf.[18][19] In Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks, the sword Tyrfing is forged, and subsequently cursed, by a dwarf named Dvalinn, and another named Dulin in the Hauksbók manuscript.[20]

Middle High German

In German literature, many dwarfs can make themselves invisible, typically via a "Tarnkappe" (cloak of invisibility), which has been suggested to be an ancient attribute of dwarfs.[21] Depending on the story, they may be hostile or friendly to humans.[22]

The dwarf

Das Lied vom Hürnen Seyfrid, Siegfried is aided by the dwarf Eugel, who is the son of the dwarf king Nibelung, originator of the Nibelung's treasure.[citation needed
]

The hero Dietrich von Bern is portrayed in adventures involving dwarfs. In Laurin, he fights against the dwarf King Laurin at the dwarf's magical rose garden. He later rescues a woman whom Laurin had kidnapped. A similar plot occurs in the fragmentary poem Goldemar. In Virginal, Dietrich rescues the dwarf queen Virginal from a force of invading heathens. The dwarfs Eggerich and Baldung play a role in aiding Dietrich in the poem Sigenot: Baldung gives Dietrich a magical gem that prevents him from being bitten when thrown into a snake pit, whereas Eggerich helps Dietrich and Hildebrand escape. In the Heldenbuch-Prosa, a dwarf takes Dietrich out of this world after the death of all the other heroes, a role given to Laurin in some different versions of Dietrich's end.[citation needed]

Modern period

Dwarfs feature in the modern folklore of Germanic-speaking regions of Europe, such as the Simonside Dwarfs in Northumberland, who are sometimes believed to use lights to lure people off paths, akin to a will-o'-the-wisp.[23][24]

Some dwarfs in modern folklore have been argued to belong to a broader group of smith-beings living within hollow mountains or in caves such as the Grinkenschmied.[25] These craftsmen can be referred to explicitly as dwarfs or terms that describe their roles such as Swedish: bergsmed ('mountain smith'). Mounds in Denmark can also be referred to by names derived from their inhabitants, such as 'smedsberg' or 'smedshoie' ('smith's hill' or 'smith's mound').[26] Anglian folklore tells that one can hear a forge from within a mound and feel furnace fires under the earth, while in Switzerland, the heat can be attributed to the underground kitchens of dwarfs. In one example, the furnace's heat is believed to increase soil fertility.[27]

Attributes and themes

Diversity and vagueness

Rather than existing a "true" single nature of a dwarf, they vary in their characteristics, not only across regions and time but also between one another in the same cultural context. Some are capable of changing their form entirely. The scholar

Eddas and the section of Ynglinga saga regarding Sveigðir lack prominence in their narratives and cohesive identity. Based on this, he puts forward the idea that dwarfs in these sources are set apart from other beings by their difficulty to be defined and generalised, ultimately stemming from their intrinsic nature to be hidden and as the "Other" that stands in contrast with humans.[28]

Appearance

Form and colour

Norðri, Suðri, Austri and Vestri holding up the sky[29]

Based on the etymology of dwarf, it has been proposed that the oldest conception of a dwarf was as exclusively a formless spirit, potentially as in the case of disease-causing dwarfs; however, this view is not seen in the oldest manuscript accounts.

Eddic sources, it has been noted that their roles are what define them rather than their physical appearance, which has no significant relevance.[33]

Many dwarf names in Eddic sources relate to light and brightness, such as Dellingr ('the gleaming one') and Glóinn ('glowing'). Stories do not explain these names, but it has been theorised that they refer to the fires in the forges the dwarfs work, or to haugaeldar ('grave mound fires') that are found in later Icelandic folklore. In contrast, Snorri describes

dökkálfar (which are typically identified as dwarfs) as "blacker than pitch".[34] Alvíss is described by Thor in Alvíssmál as being as unsuitable for wedding his daughter Þrúðr as he was "pale about the nostrils" and resembled a þurs.[35]

In Middle High German heroic poetry, most dwarfs have long beards, but some may appear childish.[36]

Size

In the early Old Norse sources, dwarfs are typically described vaguely, with no reference to them being particularly small; in the legendary sagas and later folklore, however, they are often described as short.[3]

Ramsund carving and carvings from the Hylestad Stave Church.[29] Dwarf names in Eddic sources include Fullangr ('tall enough') and Hár ('high'); however, the terms are ambiguous and do not necessarily mean the dwarfs were conceived of as tall relative to a human.[38] Some names suggest a small size, such as Nori and Nabbi, which have been translated as "tiny" and "little nub", respectively; however, it has been argued that this was not necessarily the general rule.[39]

Not all late sagas involving dwarfs describe their size, but all that do describe them as short.[40] In some German stories, the dwarf takes on the attributes of a knight but is most clearly separated from normal humans by his small size, in some cases only reaching up to the knees.[41] Despite their small size, dwarfs in these contexts typically have superhuman strength, either by nature or through magical means.[42] Anatoly Liberman suggests that dwarfs may have been initially thought of as lesser supernatural beings, which became literal smallness after Christianization.[43]

Shape changing

Diversity in appearance is not only seen between dwarfs throughout time and region but also with individual dwarfs, who can be capable of changing their shape and size, such as in Reginsmál, in which the dwarf Andvari lived as a pike in the water due to curse from a Norn, however, could also take on a human-like shape.[44] In later German folklore, the Zwergkönig ('Dwarf King') is a tiny being but is capable of becoming enormously tall at will.[45]

Gender and family groups

The Ribe skull fragment, dating to the 8th century CE, bearing a protective charm against either one or two dwarfs

In Eddic and skaldic sources, dwarfs are almost exclusively male; for example, in the

Fjalarr and Galarr.[46]

The inscription on the 8th century

Against a Dwarf XCIIIb), in which a harmful dwarf's sister is called to prevent him from causing an afflicted person's illness.[47][48]

In

Old Norse: dverga ættar).[note 1][50] As Norns are also female, this could mean that dwarfs were conceived of by the author of the poem as able to be female, it is not clear whether either their mother (or mothers) are dwarfs, or if they themselves are considered dwarfs just because they are descended from dwarfs.[51]

It has been noted that it may not be that female dwarfs did not exist in the folklore of this period, only that no explicit references to them survive in preserved narratives. It has been proposed this may be because narratives typically centre on the gods rather than dwarfs and that female dwarfs were not conceived of as of great relevance to the gods, given their primary interest in obtaining goods from dwarfs, which does not depend on their gender. Humans, being of lower power and status, cannot control dwarfs as easily and require alternative strategies to obtain treasures from them, potentially explaining why female dwarfs are more prominent in saga literature.[51]

Female dwarfs feature in the late

fostering relation with the dwarf Litr, likely with Hálfdan as the foster son.[53]

In German heroic legend, male dwarfs are often portrayed as lusting after human women. In contrast, female dwarfs seek to possess the male hero in the legends.[54]

Craftsmanship and treasure

In

Mead of Poetry from the blood of Kvasir, which grants skill in poetry to those who drink from it. According to Skáldskaparmál, due to the role of dwarfs in crafting the drink, poetry can be referred to by kennings such as "the Billow of the Dwarf-Crag", "Thought's Drink of the Rock-Folk", "the Drink of Dvalinn", "the Dwarves' ship" and the "Ale of the Dwarves".[56][57] John Lindow noted that stanza 10 of the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá can be read as describing the creation of human forms from the earth and follows a catalogue of dwarf names; he suggests that the poem may present Ask and Embla as having been created by dwarfs, with the three gods then giving them life.[58]

In Eddic and some saga sources, rather than being exchanged, items of value move from dwarfs to others, often through extortion. This has been suggested to be a critical differentiator between dwarfs and elves in

blóts or other gifts in this period.[59]

Dwarfs maintain their roles as reluctant donors of their possessions in some later

romance sagas diverge from this, with dwarfs acting friendlily and helpfully; however, this is attributed to their lateness and likely do not represent perceptions that predate Christianisation.[60] Typically, in these later sagas, fighting dwarfs is considered dishonourable, in contrast to other beings such as dragons. Receiving help from a dwarf, however, such as being healed or given a treasure, was not seen as problematic; it has been proposed that the worldview of the saga writers was that a hero is not defined by achieving deeds alone but by being able to both give and accept help.[61]

In German legends, they also possess other magical objects and often appear as master smiths.[21]

Association with mountains and stones

The Dwarfie Stane, on the island of Hoy, in Orkney

The

Old Norse: dagskjarr), akin to in Alvíssmál, where the poem's eponymous dwarf is turned to stone sunlight.[63][64][65]

In German legends, they typically live inside of hollow mountains; in some cases, they may live above the ground,[66] while in saga literature, such as Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar they commonly live in individual stones, which could also serve as workshops, such as in the forging of Brísingamen in Sörla þáttr.[67][65] The presentation of dwarfs living within stones continued into modern folklore surrounding specific landscape features such as the Dwarfie Stane, a chambered tomb located on the island of Hoy, and the Dvergasteinn in Seyðisfjörður.[68][69]

It has been proposed by

megaliths.[70]

Causing disease

Lead plaque found near Fakenham, in Norfolk, believed to be a charm against a dwarf

The term 'dweorg' can be used in

Old English: dweorg into either "a dwarf or pygmy" or "a fever"; however, it has been argued that the distinction between the two meanings may not have been prevalent among Germanic peoples in the Early Middle Ages, due to the close association between the beings and sickness in medicinal charms.[72]

The 8th century

folklore of the Germanic-speaking peoples.[77] Despite the Christian elements in the Wið Dweorh charms, such as the saints called upon for help, their foundations likely lie in a shared North-Sea Germanic tradition that includes inscribed runic charms such as those found in Ribe and Norfolk.[78]

The conception of diseases as being caused by projectiles from supernatural beings is widespread in Germanic folklore through time, such as in the phenomenon of

Norwegian words dvergskot or dvergskott which refer to an 'animal disease' and translate literally as 'dwarfshot'.[23][81]

Toponomy

Placenames derived from dwarf or cognate:

England

Influence on popular culture

The Seven Disney Dwarfs in the trailer for Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs

Dwarfs feature in modern tellings of folklore such as Walt Disney's 1937 film based on the folktale recorded by the Brothers Grimm.[83][84]

Most dwarfs in modern fantasy fiction closely follow those of

elves: most modern fantasy has continued this distinction.[85] Dwarfs are also present in other fantasy literature such as C. S. Lewis's Narnia stories, Terry Pratchett's Discworld and the Artemis Fowl novels by Eoin Colfer.[86][87][88]

The emergence of fantasy

Warcraft present an image of dwarfs as stout, bearded mountain dwellers, separate from Elves.[citation needed
]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ It is unclear whether "Dvalinn's daughters" means that they are literally the daughters of the dwarf Dvalinn, or that the term refers more generally to descendants of dwarfs.[50]

References

  1. ^ Orel 2003, p. 81.
  2. ^ Liberman 2016, pp. 312–314.
  3. ^ a b c Simek 2008, pp. 67–68.
  4. ^ a b Gilliver, Marshall & Weiner 2009, pp. 104–108.
  5. ^ Simek 2008, p. 305.
  6. ^ Orchard 1997, p. 35.
  7. ^ Lindow 2001, p. 110.
  8. ^ Barreiro 2014, p. 35.
  9. ^ Orchard 2011, pp. 6–7, Völuspá: The prophecy of the seeress, Dvergatal ('The tally of dwarfs').
  10. ^ Simek 2008, p. 16.
  11. ^ Simek 2008, p. 84.
  12. ^ Simek 2008, pp. 46, 285.
  13. ^ Simek 2008, p. 177.
  14. ^ Simek 2008, p. 12.
  15. ^ Simek 2008, p. 189.
  16. ^ Lindow 2001, p. 101.
  17. ^ Schäfke 2015, p. 366.
  18. ^ Mikučionis 2017, pp. 82–83.
  19. ^ Volsung Saga, Chapter 14 - Regin's tale of his Brothers, and of the Gold called Andvari's Hoard.
  20. ^ Crawford 2021, pp. 13, 137–139.
  21. ^ a b Lütjens 1911, pp. 80–86.
  22. ^ Lütjens 1911, pp. 94–98.
  23. ^ a b Simek 2008, p. 68.
  24. ^ The Simonside Dwarfs, p. 543.
  25. ^ Motz 1977, p. 50.
  26. ^ Motz 1977, p. 52.
  27. ^ Motz 1977, p. 53.
  28. ^ Jakobsson 2005, pp. 69–70.
  29. ^ a b Mikučionis 2017, pp. 82–88.
  30. ^ Mikučionis 2020, pp. 143–144, 147.
  31. ^ Mikučionis 2017, pp. 70–72.
  32. ^ Mikučionis 2017, pp. 63–64.
  33. ^ Mikučionis 2017, p. 64.
  34. ^ Mikučionis 2017, pp. 75–76.
  35. ^ Mikučionis 2017, pp. 88–89.
  36. ^ Lütjens 1911, pp. 70–72.
  37. ^ Mikučionis 2017, pp. 65–66.
  38. ^ Mikučionis 2017, p. 73.
  39. ^ Liberman 2002, p. 177.
  40. ^ Mikučionis 2014, p. 184.
  41. ^ Lütjens 1911, pp. 69–70, 74.
  42. ^ Lütjens 1911, pp. 79–80.
  43. ^ Liberman 2008, p. 57.
  44. ^ Mikučionis 2017, pp. 80–81, 91.
  45. ^ Motz 1982, p. 74.
  46. ^ Mikučionis 2020, pp. 148, 153–154.
  47. ^ Mikučionis 2020, p. 146.
  48. ^ Nordström 2021, pp. 21–22.
  49. ^ Bellows 2004, Fáfnismál, stanza 13.
  50. ^ a b Mikučionis 2020, p. 158.
  51. ^ a b Mikučionis 2020, p. 159.
  52. ^ Mikučionis 2014, pp. 167–170.
  53. ^ Mikučionis 2014, pp. 167–183.
  54. ^ Lütjens 1911, p. 103.
  55. ^ Simek 2008, pp. 45, 65, 113, 122, 124, 219, 283, 289.
  56. ^ Simek 2008, pp. 68, 124.
  57. ^ Brodeur 1916, Chapter 10.
  58. ^ Lindow 2001, pp. 62–63.
  59. ^ Barreiro 2014, pp. 39–40.
  60. ^ Barreiro 2014, p. 40.
  61. ^ Mikučionis 2014, pp. 184–185.
  62. ^ Mikučionis 2020, pp. 147–148, 151.
  63. ^ Jakobsson 2005, pp. 64–65.
  64. ^ Mikučionis 2017, p. 63.
  65. ^ a b Motz 1977, p. 48.
  66. ^ Lütjens 1911, pp. 91–92.
  67. ^ Mikučionis 2014, pp. 161–162.
  68. ^ Muir 2014, p. 37.
  69. ^ Egeler 2016, pp. 9–16.
  70. ^ Motz 1977, p. 56.
  71. ^ Hines 2019, p. 37.
  72. ^ Hall 2009, pp. 206–207.
  73. ^ Hall 2009, p. 206.
  74. ^ Nordström 2021, pp. 1, 22.
  75. ^ Hall 2009, pp. 201, 204.
  76. ^ Hines 2019, pp. 36–37.
  77. ^ Hall 2009, p. 207.
  78. ^ Nordström 2021, p. 21.
  79. ^ elf-shot.
  80. ^ Hall 2009, p. 214.
  81. ^ dvergskott.
  82. ^ Dwarriden.
  83. ^ Grimm & Grimm 2014.
  84. ^ Snow White (Disney).
  85. ^ Wilkin 2006, p. 62.
  86. ^ Johnson & Houtman 1986, pp. 83–84.
  87. ^ Pratchett & Simpson 2009, pp. 62–76.
  88. ^ Pettersson 2009, pp. 20–21.

Bibliography

Primary

  • Bellows, Henry Adam (2004). The poetic Edda : the mythological poems. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.
    ISBN 9780486437101
    .
  • Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist (1916). Skáldskaparmal.
  • ISBN 9781624669941
    .
  • Eirikr, Magnusson. Volsung Saga – Völsunga Saga
    . Retrieved 26 November 2022.
  • ISBN 9780141393728
    .

Secondary
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