Educational psychology
Part of a series on |
Psychology |
---|
Educational research |
---|
Disciplines |
Curricular domains |
|
Methods |
Educational psychology is the branch of
Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. It is also informed by neuroscience. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education, classroom management, and student motivation. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks.[2]
The field of educational psychology involves the study of memory, conceptual processes, and individual differences (via cognitive psychology) in conceptualizing new strategies for learning processes in humans. Educational psychology has been built upon theories of operant conditioning, functionalism, structuralism, constructivism, humanistic psychology, Gestalt psychology, and information processing.[1]
Educational psychology has seen rapid growth and development as a profession in the last twenty years.[3] School psychology began with the concept of intelligence testing leading to provisions for special education students, who could not follow the regular classroom curriculum in the early part of the 20th century.[3] Another main focus of school psychology was to help close the gap for children of colour, as the fight against racial inequality and segregation was still very prominent, during the early to mid-1900s. However, "school psychology" itself has built a fairly new profession based upon the practices and theories of several psychologists among many different fields. Educational psychologists are working side by side with psychiatrists, social workers, teachers, speech and language therapists, and counselors in an attempt to understand the questions being raised when combining behavioral, cognitive, and social psychology in the classroom setting.[3]
History
As a field of study, educational psychology is fairly new and was not considered a specific practice until the 20th century. Reflections on everyday teaching and learning allowed some individuals throughout history to elaborate on developmental differences in cognition, the nature of instruction, and the transfer of knowledge and learning. These topics are important to education and, as a result, they are important in understanding human cognition, learning, and social perception.[4]
Antiquity
Some of the ideas and issues pertaining to educational psychology date back to the time of
Early Modern era
John Locke is considered one of the most influential philosophers in post-renaissance Europe, a time period that began around the mid-1600s. Locke is considered the "Father of English Psychology". One of Locke's most important works was written in 1690, named An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. In this essay, he introduced the term "tabula rasa" meaning "blank slate." Locke explained that learning was attained through experience only and that we are all born without knowledge.[6]
He followed by contrasting Plato's theory of innate learning processes. Locke believed the mind was formed by experiences, not innate ideas. Locke introduced this idea as "empiricism", or the understanding that knowledge is only built on knowledge and experience.[7]
In the late 1600s, John Locke advanced the hypothesis that people learn primarily from external forces. He believed that the mind was like a blank tablet (tabula rasa), and that successions of simple impressions give rise to complex ideas through association and reflection. Locke is credited with establishing "empiricism" as a criterion for testing the validity of knowledge, thus providing a conceptual framework for later development of experimental methodology in the natural and social sciences.[8]
In the 18th century the philosopher
Before 1890
Philosophers of education such as Juan Vives, Johann Pestalozzi, Friedrich Fröbel, and Johann Herbart had examined, classified and judged the methods of education centuries before the beginnings of psychology in the late 1800s.
Juan Vives
Vives introduced his educational ideas in his writing, "De anima et vita" in 1538. In this publication, Vives explores
Johann Pestalozzi
During the time of
Johann Herbart
Johann Herbart (1776–1841) is considered the father of educational psychology.[15] He believed that learning was influenced by interest in the subject and the teacher.[15] He thought that teachers should consider the students' existing mental sets—what they already know—when presenting new information or material.[15] Herbart came up with what are now known as the formal steps. The 5 steps that teachers should use are:
- Review material that has already been learned by the student[15]
- Prepare the student for new material by giving them an overview of what they are learning next[15]
- Present the new material.[15]
- Relate the new material to the old material that has already been learned.[15]
- Show how the student can apply the new material and show the material they will learn next.[15]
1890–1920
There were three major figures in educational psychology in this period: William James, G. Stanley Hall, and John Dewey. These three men distinguished themselves in general psychology and educational psychology, which overlapped significantly at the end of the 19th century.[4]
William James (1842–1910)
The period of 1890–1920 is considered the golden era of educational psychology when aspirations of the new discipline rested on the application of the scientific methods of observation and experimentation to educational problems. From 1840 to 1920 37 million people immigrated to the United States.[10] This created an expansion of elementary schools and secondary schools. The increase in immigration also provided educational psychologists the opportunity to use intelligence testing to screen immigrants at Ellis Island.[10] Darwinism influenced the beliefs of the prominent educational psychologists.[10] Even in the earliest years of the discipline, educational psychologists recognized the limitations of this new approach. The pioneering American psychologist William James commented that:
Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. An intermediate inventive mind must make that application, by using its originality".[16]
James is the father of psychology in America, but he also made contributions to educational psychology. In his famous series of lectures Talks to Teachers on Psychology, published in 1899, James defines education as "the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to behavior".[16] He states that teachers should "train the pupil to behavior"[16] so that he fits into the social and physical world. Teachers should also realize the importance of habit and instinct. They should present information that is clear and interesting and relate this new information and material to things the student already knows about.[16] He also addresses important issues such as attention, memory, and association of ideas.
Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet published Mental Fatigue in 1898, in which he attempted to apply the experimental method to educational psychology.[10] In this experimental method he advocated for two types of experiments, experiments done in the lab and experiments done in the classroom. In 1904 he was appointed the Minister of Public Education.[10] This is when he began to look for a way to distinguish children with developmental disabilities.[10] Binet strongly supported special education programs because he believed that "abnormality" could be cured.[10] The Binet-Simon test was the first intelligence test and was the first to distinguish between "normal children" and those with developmental disabilities.[10] Binet believed that it was important to study individual differences between age groups and children of the same age.[10] He also believed that it was important for teachers to take into account individual students' strengths and also the needs of the classroom as a whole when teaching and creating a good learning environment.[10] He also believed that it was important to train teachers in observation so that they would be able to see individual differences among children and adjust the curriculum to the students.[10] Binet also emphasized that practice of material was important. In 1916 Lewis Terman revised the Binet-Simon so that the average score was always 100.[15] The test became known as the Stanford-Binet and was one of the most widely used tests of intelligence. Terman, unlike Binet, was interested in using intelligence test to identify gifted children who had high intelligence.[10] In his longitudinal study of gifted children, who became known as the Termites, Terman found that gifted children become gifted adults.[15]
Edward Thorndike
If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print.[17]
John Dewey
John Dewey (1859–1952) had a major influence on the development of progressive education in the United States. He believed that the classroom should prepare children to be good citizens and facilitate creative intelligence.[10] He pushed for the creation of practical classes that could be applied outside of a school setting.[10] He also thought that education should be student-oriented, not subject-oriented. For Dewey, education was a social experience that helped bring together generations of people. He stated that students learn by doing. He believed in an active mind that was able to be educated through observation, problem-solving, and enquiry. In his 1910 book How We Think, he emphasizes that material should be provided in a way that is stimulating and interesting to the student since it encourages original thought and problem-solving.[18] He also stated that material should be relative to the student's own experience.[18]
"The material furnished by way of information should be relevant to a question that is vital in the students own experience"[18]
Jean Piaget
1920–present
The number of people receiving a high school and college education increased dramatically from 1920 to 1960.[10] Because very few jobs were available to teens coming out of eighth grade, there was an increase in high school attendance in the 1930s.[10] The progressive movement in the United States took off at this time and led to the idea of progressive education. John Flanagan, an educational psychologist, developed tests for combat trainees and instructions in combat training.[10] In 1954 the work of Kenneth Clark and his wife on the effects of segregation on black and white children was influential in the Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education.[15] From the 1960s to present day, educational psychology has switched from a behaviorist perspective to a more cognitive-based perspective because of the influence and development of cognitive psychology at this time.[10]
Jerome Bruner
Benjamin Bloom
Nathaniel Gage
Nathaniel Gage (1917–2008) is an important figure in educational psychology as his research focused on improving teaching and understanding the processes involved in teaching.[10] He edited the book Handbook of Research on Teaching (1963), which helped develop early research in teaching and educational psychology.[10] Gage founded the Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching, which contributed research on teaching as well as influencing the education of important educational psychologists.[10]
Perspectives
Behavioral
Cognitive
Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective, perhaps because it admits causally related mental constructs such as
The
Cognitive view of intelligence
Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities, and challenges that result from predisposition, learning, and development. These manifest as individual differences in
Although theories of
Developmental
Developmental psychology, and especially the psychology of cognitive development, opens a special perspective for educational psychology. This is so because education and the psychology of cognitive development converge on a number of crucial assumptions. First, the psychology of cognitive development defines human cognitive competence at successive phases of development. Education aims to help students acquire knowledge and develop skills that are compatible with their understanding and problem-solving capabilities at different ages. Thus, knowing the students' level on a developmental sequence provides information on the kind and level of knowledge they can assimilate, which, in turn, can be used as a frame for organizing the subject matter to be taught at different school grades. This is the reason why Piaget's theory of cognitive development was so influential for education, especially mathematics and science education.[37] In the same direction, the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development suggest that in addition to the concerns above, sequencing of concepts and skills in teaching must take account of the processing and working memory capacities that characterize successive age levels.[38][39]
Second, the psychology of
Finally, the psychology of cognitive development is concerned with individual differences in the organization of cognitive processes and abilities, in their rate of change, and in their mechanisms of change. The principles underlying intra- and inter-individual differences could be educationally useful, because knowing how students differ in regard to the various dimensions of cognitive development, such as processing and representational capacity, self-understanding and self-regulation, and the various domains of understanding, such as mathematical, scientific, or verbal abilities, would enable the teacher to cater for the needs of the different students so that no one is left behind.[39][41]
Constructivist
Constructivism is a category of learning theory in which emphasis is placed on the agency and prior "knowing" and experience of the learner, and often on the social and cultural determinants of the learning process. Educational psychologists distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with
A dominant influence on the social constructivist paradigm is
Vygotsky viewed the ZPD as a better way to explain the relation between children's learning and cognitive development. Prior to the ZPD, the relation between learning and development could be boiled down to the following three major positions: 1) Development always precedes learning (e.g.,
Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, Jerome Bruner and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of instructional scaffolding, in which the social or information environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.[46]
Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget was interested in how an organism adapts to its environment. Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with a schema operating at birth that he called "reflexes". Piaget identified four stages in cognitive development. The four stages are sensorimotor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage.[47]
Conditioning and learning
To understand the characteristics of learners in
For example, educational psychologists have conducted research on the instructional applicability of Jean Piaget's theory of development, according to which children mature through four stages of cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and examples. Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains. A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget's most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding through a self-regulatory process.[32]
Piaget proposed a developmental theory of
Rudolf Steiner's model of child development interrelates physical, emotional, cognitive, and moral development[49] in developmental stages similar to those later described by Piaget.[50]
Developmental theories are sometimes presented not as shifts between qualitatively different stages, but as gradual increments on separate dimensions. Development of
Motivation
Motivation is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains behavior. Motivation can have several impacting effects on how students learn and how they behave towards subject matter:[52]
- Provide direction towards goals.
- Enhance cognitive processing abilities and performance.
- Direct behavior toward specific goals.
- Lead to increased effort and energy.
- Increase initiation of and persistence in activities.
Educational psychology research on motivation is concerned with the
The self-determination theory (SDT) was developed by psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. SDT focuses on the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in driving human behavior and posits inherent growth and development tendencies. It emphasizes the degree to which an individual's behavior is self-motivated and self-determined. When applied to the realm of education, the self-determination theory is concerned primarily with promoting in students an interest in learning, a value of education, and a confidence in their own capacities and attributes.[54]
Motivational theories also explain how
Technology
- Intelligent tutoring system
- Cognitive tutor
- Cooperative learning
- Collaborative learning
- Problem-based learning
- Computer-supported collaborative learning
- Constructive alignment
Technology is essential to the field of educational psychology, not only for the psychologist themselves as far as testing, organization, and resources, but also for students. Educational psychologists who reside in the K-12 setting focus most of their time on special education students. It has been found that students with disabilities learning through technology such as iPad applications and videos are more engaged and motivated to learn in the classroom setting. Liu et al. explain that learning-based technology allows for students to be more focused, and learning is more efficient with learning technologies. The authors explain that learning technology also allows for students with social-emotional disabilities to participate in distance learning.[61]
Applications
Teaching
Research on classroom management and pedagogy is conducted to guide teaching practice and form a foundation for teacher education programs. The goals of classroom management are to create an environment conducive to learning and to develop students' self-management skills. More specifically, classroom management strives to create positive teacher-student and peer relationships, manage student groups to sustain on-task behavior, and use counseling and other psychological methods to aid students who present persistent psychosocial problems.[63]
Introductory educational psychology is a commonly required area of study in most North American teacher education programs. When taught in that context, its content varies, but it typically emphasizes learning theories (especially cognitively oriented ones), issues about motivation, assessment of students' learning, and classroom management. A developing Wikibook about educational psychology gives more detail about the educational psychology topics that are typically presented in preservice teacher education.
Counseling
Training
In order to become an educational psychologist, students can complete an undergraduate degree of their choice. They then must go to graduate school to study education psychology, counseling psychology, or school counseling. Most students today are also receiving their
Many high schools and colleges are increasingly offering educational psychology courses, with some colleges offering it as a general education requirement. Similarly, colleges offer students opportunities to obtain a Ph.D. in educational psychology.
Within the UK, students must hold a degree that is accredited by the British Psychological Society (either undergraduate or at the master's level) before applying for a three-year doctoral course that involves further education, placement, and a research thesis.
In recent years, many university training programs in the US have included curriculum that focuses on issues of race, gender, disability, trauma, and poverty, and how those issues affect learning and academic outcomes. A growing number of universities offer specialized certificates that allow professionals to work and study in these fields (i.e. autism specialists, trauma specialists).
Employment outlook
Anticipated to grow by 18–26%, employment for psychologists in the United States is expected to grow faster than most occupations in 2014. One in four psychologists is employed in educational settings. In the United States, the median salary for psychologists in primary and secondary schools is US$58,360 as of May 2004.[65]
In recent decades, the participation of women as professional researchers in North American educational psychology has risen dramatically.[66]
Methods of research
As opposed to some other fields of
See also
- Applied psychology – Application of psychological theories or findings
- Evidence-based education – Paradigm of the education field
- Instructional theory – Theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop
- Learning theory (education) – Theory that describes how students receive, process, and retain knowledge during learning
- List of educational psychologists
- Living educational theory – an educational psychology action research method
- Motivation theory– Inner state causing goal-directed behavior
References
- ^ a b Snowman, Jack (1997). Educational Psychology: What Do We Teach, What Should We Teach?. "Educational Psychology", 9, 151-169
- ^ Lucas, J.L.; Blazek, M.A. & Riley, A.B. (2005). The lack of representation of educational psychology and school psychology in introductory psychology textbooks. Educational Psychology, 25, 347–51.
- ^ a b c Farrell, P. (2010). School psychology: Learning lessons from history and moving forward. School Psychology International, 31(6), 581-598.
- ^ ISBN 1-55798-206-6.
- ^ Toomas Lott (2011). "Plato on the Rationality of Belief, Trames", 15, 339-364.
- ^ "John Locke". Archived from the original on 2014-12-05. Retrieved 2018-06-19.
- ^ "John Locke". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
- ^ "The History of Educational Psychology". cortland.edu. Retrieved May 5, 2016.
- S2CID 144516273. Retrieved 20 December 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au Zimmerman, B.J. & Schunk, D.H. (Eds.) (2003). Educational psychology: A century of contributions. Mahwah, NJ, US: Erlbaum.
- ^ a b c Vives, J, & Watson, F. (1913). On education: a translation of the de tradendis disciplinis of juan luis vives. Cambridge : The University Press.
- ^ Casini, Lorenzo (2010). "Quid sit anima": Juan Luis Vives on the soul and its relation to the body". Renaissance Studies, 24, 496- 517
- ^ Glover, J, & Ronning, R. (Ed.). (1987).
- ^ a b c Horlacher, Rebekka (2011). Schooling as a means of popular education: Pestalozzi's method as a popular education experiment. "Paedagogica Historica": 47, 65-75
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Hergenhahn, B.R. (2009). An introduction to the history of psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
- ^ a b c d James, W. (1983). Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life's ideals. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1899)
- ^ Thorndike, E.L. (1912). Education: A first book. New York: MacMillan.
- ^ a b c Dewey J. (1910). How we think. New York D.C. Heath & Co.
- ^ a b c d e f g Clark, D. (n.d.). Bloom's taxonomy of learning domains. Retrieved from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html
- ^ Alberto, P. & Troutman, A. (2003) Applied behavior analysis for teachers (6th ed.). Columbus, OH, USA: Prentice-Hall-Merrill.
- ^ McGoey, K.E. & DuPaul, G.J. (2000) Token reinforcement, and response cost procedures: Reducing the disruptive behavior of preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. School Psychology Quarterly, 15, 330–43.
- ^ Theodore, L.A.; Bray, M.A.; Kehle, T.J. & Jenson, W.R. (2001) Randomization of group contingencies and reinforcers to reduce classroom disruptive behavior. Journal of School Psychology, 39, 267–77.
- ^ Lepper, M. R.; Greene, D. & Nisbett, R.E. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the "overjustification" hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 129–37.
- ^ Cameron, J.; Pierce, W.D.; Banko, K.M. & Gear, A. (2005). Achievement-based rewards and intrinsic motivation: A test of cognitive mediators. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 641–55.
- ^ Pierce, W.D. & Cameron, J. (2002). A summary of the effects of reward contingencies on interest and performance. The Behavior Analyst Today, 3, 222–26. ABO
- PMID 23781184.
- ^ Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
- ^ a b Krug, D.; Davis, T.B.; Glover, J.A. (1990). Massed versus distributed repeated reading: A case of forgetting helping recall? Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 366–71.
- ^ Dempster, F.N. (1989). Spacing effects and their implications for theory and practice. Educational Psychology Review, 1, 309–30.
- ^ Carney, R.N. & Levin, J.R. (2000). Fading mnemonic memories: Here's looking anew, again! Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 499–508.
- ^ Kalyuga, S.; Chandler, P.; Tuovinen, J. & Sweller, J. (2001). When problem-solving is superior to studying worked examples. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 579–88.
- ^ a b Woolfolk, A.E.; Winne, P.H. & Perry, N.E. (2006). Educational Psychology (3rd Canadian ed.). Toronto, Canada: Pearson.
- ^ Spearman, C. (1904) "General intelligence" objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology, 15, 201–93.
- ^ Gardner, Howard. (1983) Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
- ^ Wechsler, D. (1949). The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. New York: Psychological Corp.
- ^ Day, L.; Hanson, K.; Maltby, J.; Proctor, C.L. & Wood, A.M. (in press). Hope uniquely predicts objective academic achievement above intelligence, personality, and previous academic achievement. Journal of Research in Personality.
- ^ Furth, H.G. & Wachs, H. (1975). Thinking goes to school: Piaget's theory in practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press
- ^ Demetriou, A. & Valanides, N. (1998). A three-level theory of the developing mind: Basic principles and implications for instruction and assessment. In R.J. Sternberg & W.M. Williams (Eds.), Intelligence, instruction, and assessment (pp. 149–99). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
- ^ a b c Demetriou, A.; Spanoudis, G. & Mouyi, A. (2010). A Three-level Model of the Developing Mind: Functional and Neuronal Substantiation. In M. Ferrari and L. Vuletic (Eds.), The Developmental Relations between Mind, Brain, and Education: Essays in Honor of Robbie Case. New York: Springer.
- ^ Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development: Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.
- ^ Case, R. (1992). The role of central conceptual structures in the development of children's mathematical and scientific thought. In A. Demetriou, M. Shayer, & A. Efklides (Eds.), Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development: Implications and applications to education (pp. 52–65). London: Routledge.
- ^ McMahon, M. (1997, December). Social Constructivism and the World Wide Web - A Paradigm for Learning. Paper presented at the ASCILITE conference. Perth, Australia.
- ^ JSTOR 1176008.
- ^ a b c Vygotsky, Lev Semenovich (1980). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard university press.
- ^ "Vygotsky | Simply Psychology". www.simplypsychology.org. Archived from the original on 2019-08-05. Retrieved 2019-10-16.
- ^ Seifert, Kelvin & Sutton, Rosemary. Educational Psychology: Second Edition. Global Text Project, 2009, pp. 33–37.
- ^ Huitt, W; Hummel, J (2003). "Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development". Educational Psychology Interactive.
- ^ "Educational Psychology Promotes Teaching and Learning". apa.org. Retrieved 2017-08-29.
- ^ Woods, Ashley and Woods, Steiner Schools in England, University of West of England, Bristol: Research Report RR645, section 1.5, "Findings from the survey and case studies"
- ^ Carrie Y. Nordlund, "Art Experiences in Waldorf Education," Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia, May 2006
- ^ Cano, F. (2005). Epistemological beliefs and approaches to learning: Their change through secondary school and their influence on academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 203–21.
- ^ Omrod, Jeanne. "Educational Theme: Motivation in the Classroom" (PDF). Green Education Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-12-15. Retrieved 2013-04-01.
- ^ a b Weiner, B. (2000). Interpersonal and intrapersonal theories of motivation from an attributional perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 12, 1–14.
- .
- ^ a b Elliot, A.J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational Psychologist, 34, 169–89.
- ^ Whyte, C. (1980). An Integrated Counseling and Learning Assistance Center. New Directions Sourcebook. Jossey-Bass, Inc. San Francisco.
- ^ Whyte, C. (1978). Effective Counseling Methods for High-Risk College Freshmen. Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance, 6 (4), 198–200.
- ^ a b Anderson, L.W. & Krathwohl, D.R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York, USA: Addison-Wesley Longman.
- ^ Bloom, B.S. (1984). The two sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher, 13 (6), 4–16.
- ^ Gronlund, N.E. (2000). How to write and use instructional objectives (6th ed.). Columbus, OH, USA: Merrill.
- ^ Liu, Gi Zen; Wu, No- Wei; Chen, Ye- Wen. Identifying Emerging Trends for implementing learning technology in special education. "Research in Development disabilities", 2013, 3618–3628
- ^ Finn, J.D.; Gerber, S.B.; Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2005). Small classes in the early grades, academic achievement, and graduating from high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 214–33.
- ^ Emmer, E.T. & Stough, L.M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36, 103–12.
- ^ Love, P. (2009). Educational psychologists: the early search for an identity. Educational Psychology In Practice, 25(1), 3-8.
- ^ Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. Occupational Outlook Handbook. 2006–07 Edition. Psychologists. retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos056.htm on June 30, 2006.
- ^ Evans, J.; Hsieh, P.P. & Robinson, D.H. (2005). Women's Involvement in educational psychology journals from 1976 to 2004. Educational Psychology Review, 17, 263–71.
- S2CID 216468301.
Further reading
- Barry, W.J. (2012). Challenging the Status Quo Meaning of Educational Quality: Introducing Transformational Quality (TQ) Theory©. Educational Journal of Living Theories. 4, 1-29. http://ejolts.net/node/191
External links
- Educational Psychology Resources by Athabasca University
- Division 15 of the American Psychological Association
- Psychology of Education Section of the British Psychological Society Archived 2019-01-24 at the Wayback Machine
- Explorations in Learning & Instructional Design: Theory Into Practice Database (archived 30 September 2011)
- Classics in the History of Psychology
- The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
- The Psychology of Educational Quality-Transformational Quality (TQ) Theory (video on YouTube)