Existence
Existence is the state of having being or
The orthodox position in ontology is that existence is a second-order property or a property of properties. For example, to say that lions exists means that the property of being a lion is possessed by an entity. A different view states that existence is a first-order property or a property of individuals. This means existence is similar to other properties of individuals, like color and shape. Alexius Meinong and his followers accept this idea and say that not all individuals have this property; they state that there are some individuals, such as Santa Claus, that do not exist. Universalists reject this view; they see existence as a universal property of every individual.
The concept of existence has been discussed throughout the
Dictionaries define existence as the state of being real and to exist as having being or participating in reality.[1] Existence sets real entities apart from imaginary ones,[2] and can refer both to individual entities or to the totality of reality.[3] The word "existence" entered the English language in the late 14th century from old French and has its roots in the medieval Latin term ex(s)istere, which means "to stand forth", "to appear", and "to arise".[4] Existence is studied by the subdiscipline of metaphysics known as ontology.[5][a]
The terms "being", "reality", and "actuality" are often used as synonyms of "existence",
Disputes about the nature of existence are reflected in the distinction between thin and thick concepts of existence. Thin concepts of existence understand existence as a logical property that every existing thing shares; they do not include any substantial content about the metaphysical implications of having existence. According to one view, existence is the same as the logical property of self-identity. This view articulates a thin concept of existence because it merely states what exists is identical to itself without discussing any substantial characteristics of the nature of existence.[14] Thick concepts of existence encompass a metaphysical analysis of what it means that something exists and what essential features existence implies. According to one proposal, to exist is to be present in space and time, and to have effects on other things. This definition is controversial because it implies abstract objects such as numbers do not exist. Philosopher George Berkeley (1685–1753) gave a different thick concept of existence; he stated: "to be is to be perceived", meaning all existence is mental.[15]
Existence contrasts with nonexistence, which refers to a lack of reality. Whether objects can be divided into existent and nonexistent objects is a subject of controversy. This distinction is sometimes used to explain how it is possible to think of fictional objects like dragons and unicorns but the concept of nonexistent objects is not generally accepted; some philosophers say the concept is contradictory.
Another contrast is made between existence and
Types of existing entities
Many discussions of the types of existing entities revolve around the definitions of different types, the existence or nonexistence of entities of a specific type, the ways entities of different types are related to each other, and whether some types are more fundamental than others.[24] Examples are the existence or nonexistence of souls; whether there are abstract, fictional, and universal entities; and the existence or nonexistence of possible worlds and objects besides the actual world.[25] These discussions cover the topics of the basic stuff or constituents underlying all reality and the most general features of entities.[26]
Singular and general
There is a distinction between singular existence and general existence. Singular existence is the existence of individual entities. For example, the sentence "
Singular and general existence are closely related to each other, and some philosophers have tried to explain one as a special case of the other. For example, according to Frege, general existence is more basic than singular existence. One argument in favor of this position is that singular existence can be expressed in terms of general existence. For instance, the sentence "Angela Merkel exists" can be expressed as "entities that are identical to Angela Merkel exist", where the expression "being identical to Angela Merkel" is understood as a general term. Philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine (1908–2000) defends a different position by giving primacy to singular existence and arguing that general existence can be expressed in terms of singular existence.[29]
A related question is whether there can be general existence without singular existence. According to philosopher Henry S. Leonard (1905–1967), a property only has general existence if there is at least one actual object that instantiates
Concrete and abstract
There is an influential distinction in ontology between concrete and abstract objects. Many concrete objects, like rocks, plants, and other people, are encountered in everyday life. They exist in space and time. They have effects on each other, like when a rock falls on a plant and damages it. Abstract objects, like numbers, sets, and types, have no location in space and time, and lack causal powers.[36] The distinction between concrete objects and abstract objects is sometimes treated as the most-general division of being.[37]
The existence of concrete objects is widely agreed upon but opinions about abstract objects are divided. Realists such as Plato accept the idea that abstract objects have independent existence.[38] Some realists say abstract objects have the same mode of existence as concrete objects while according to others, they exist in a different way.[39] Anti-realists state abstract objects do not exist, a view that is often combined with the idea that existence requires a location in space and time or the ability to causally interact.[40]
Possible, contingent, and necessary
A further distinction is between merely possible, contingent, and necessary existence.[41] An entity has necessary existence if it must exist or could not fail to exist. This means that it is not possible to newly create or destroy necessary entities. Entities that exist but could fail to exist are contingent while merely possible entities do not exist but could exist.[42]
Most entities encountered in ordinary experience, like telephones, sticks, and flowers, have contingent existence.[43] The contingent existence of telephones is reflected in the fact that they exist in the present but did not exist in the past, meaning that it is not necessary that they exist. It is an open question whether any entities have necessary existence.[44] According to some nominalists, all concrete objects have contingent existence while all abstract objects have necessary existence.[45]
According to some theorists, one or several necessary beings are required as the explanatory foundation of the cosmos. For instance, the philosophers Avicenna (980–1037) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) say that God has necessary existence.[46] A few philosophers, like Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), see God and the world as the same thing, and say that all entities have necessary existence in order to provide a unified and rational explanation of everything.[47]
There are many academic debates about the existence of merely possible objects. According to
The problem of contingent and necessary existence is closely related to the ontological question of
Physical and mental
Entities that exist on a physical level include objects encountered in everyday life, like stones, trees, and human bodies, as well as entities discussed in modern physics, like electrons and protons.[52][f] Physical entities can be observed and measured; they possess mass and a location in space and time.[54] Mental entities like perceptions, experiences of pleasure and pain as well as beliefs, desires, and emotions belong to the realm of the mind; they are primarily associated with conscious experiences but also include unconscious states like unconscious beliefs, desires, and memories.[55]
The
Others
Fictional entities are entities that exist as inventions inside works of
Modes and degrees of existence
Closely related to the problem of different types of entities is the question of whether their modes of existence also vary. This is the case according to ontological pluralism, which states entities belonging to different types differ in both their essential features and in the ways they exist.[66] This position is sometimes found in theology; it states God is radically different from his creation and emphasizes his uniqueness by saying the difference affects both God's features and God's mode of existence.[67]
Another form of ontological pluralism distinguishes the existence of material objects from the existence of
The topic of degrees of existence is closely related to the problem of modes of existence. This topic is based on the idea that some entities exist to a higher degree or have more being than other entities, similar to the way some properties, such as heat and mass, have degrees. According to philosopher Plato (428/427–348/347 BCE), for example, unchangeable
The view that there are different types of entities is common in metaphysics but the idea that they differ from each other in their modes or degrees of existence is often rejected, implying that a thing either exists or does not exist without in-between alternatives.[70] Metaphysician Peter van Inwagen (1942–present) uses the idea that there is an intimate relationship between existence and quantification to argue against different modes of existence. Quantification is related to the counting of objects; according to Inwagen, if there were different modes of entities, people would need different types of numbers to count them. Because the same numbers can be used to count different types of entities, he concludes all entities have the same mode of existence.[71]
Theories of the nature of existence
Theories of the nature of existence aim to explain what it means for something to exist. The central dispute about the nature of existence is whether it should be understood as a property of individuals.[73] An individual is a unique entity, like Socrates or a particular apple. A property is something that is attributed to an entity, like "being human" or "being red", and usually expresses a quality or feature of that entity.[74] The two main theories of existence are first-order and second-order theories. First-order theories understand existence as a property of individuals while second-order theories say existence is a second-order property, that is, a property of properties.[75]
A central challenge for theories of the nature of existence is an understanding of the possibility of coherently denying the existence of something, like the claim: "Santa Claus does not exist". One difficulty is explaining how the name "Santa Claus" can be meaningful even though there is no Santa Claus.[76]
Second-order theories
Second-order theories understand existence as a second-order property rather than a first-order property. They are often seen as the orthodox position in ontology.[77] For instance, the Empire State Building is an individual object and "being 443.2 meters (1,454 ft) tall" is a first-order property of it. "Being instantiated" is a property of "being 443.2 meters tall" and therefore a second-order property. According to second-order theories, to talk about existence is to talk about which properties have instances.[78] For example, this view says that the sentence "God exists" means "Godhood is instantiated" rather than "God has the property of existing".[2]
A key reason against characterizing existence as a property of individuals is that existence differs from regular properties. Regular properties, such as being a building and being 443.2 meters tall, express what an object is like but do not directly describe whether or not that building exists.[79] According to this view, existence is more fundamental than regular properties because an object cannot have any properties if it does not exist.[80]
According to second-order theorists, quantifiers rather than predicates express existence.[81] Predicates are expressions that apply to and classify objects, usually by attributing features to them, such as "is a butterfly" and "is happy".[82] Quantifiers are terms that talk about the quantity of objects that have certain properties. Existential quantifiers express that there is at least one object, like the expressions "some" and "there exists", as in "some cows eat grass" and "there exists an even prime number".[83] In this regard, existence is closely related to counting because to claim something exists is to claim the corresponding concept has one or more instances.[78]
Second-order views imply a sentence like "
Many ontologists accept that second-order theories provide a correct analysis of many types of existential sentences. It is, however, controversial whether it is correct for all cases.[85] Some problems relate to assumptions associated with everyday language about sentences like "Ronald McDonald does not exist". This type of statement is called negative singular existential and the expression Ronald McDonald is a singular term that seems to refer to an individual. It is not clear how the expression can refer to an individual if, as the sentence claims, this individual does not exist. According to a solution philosopher Bertrand Russell (1872—1970) proposed, singular terms do not refer to individuals but are descriptions of individuals. This theory states negative singular existentials deny an object matching the descriptions exists without referring to a non-existent individual. Following this approach, the sentence "Ronald McDonald does not exist" expresses the idea: "it is not the case there is a unique happy hamburger clown".[86]
First-order theories
According to first-order theories, existence is a property of individuals. These theories are less-widely accepted than second-order theories but also have some influential proponents. There are two types of first-order theories: Meinongianism and universalism.[87]
Meinongianism
Meinongianism, which describes existence as a property of some but not all entities, was first formulated by
According to Meinongians, sentences describing Sherlock Holmes and Zeus refer to nonexisting objects. They are true or false depending on whether these objects have the properties ascribed to them.[90] For instance, the sentence "Pegasus has wings" is true because having wings is a property of Pegasus, even though Pegasus lacks the property of existing.[91]
One key motivation of Meinongianism is to explain how negative singular existentials like "Ronald McDonald does not exist" can be true. Meinongians accept the idea that singular terms like "Ronald McDonald" refer to individuals. For them, a negative singular existential is true if the individual it refers to does not exist.[92]
Meinongianism has important implications for understandings of quantification. According to an influential view defended by
Some aspects of Meinongianism are controversial and have received substantial criticism. According to one objection, one cannot distinguish between being an object and being an existing object.[91] A closely related criticism states objects cannot have properties if they do not exist.[91] A further objection is that Meinongianism leads to an "overpopulated universe" because there is an object corresponding to any combination of properties.[72] A more specific criticism rejects the idea that there are incomplete and impossible objects.[93]
Universalism
Universalists agree with Meinongians that existence is a property of individuals but deny there are nonexistent entities. Instead, universalists state existence is a universal property; all entities have it, meaning everything exists. One approach is to say existence is the same as self-identity. According to the
An influential argument in favor of universalism is the claim that to deny the existence of something is contradictory. This conclusion follows from the premises that one can only deny the existence of something by referring to that entity and that one can only refer to entities that exist.[94]
Universalists have proposed different ways of interpreting negative singular existentials. According to one view, names of fictional entities like "Ronald McDonald" refer to
History
Western philosophy
While philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) accepted Plato's idea that forms are different from matter, he challenged the claim that forms have a higher type of existence. Instead, he believed forms cannot exist without matter.[99] He stated: "being is said in many ways" and explored how different types of entities have different modes of existence. For example, he distinguished between substances and their accidents, and between potentiality and actuality.[100][j]
In medieval philosophy, Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109 CE) formulated the influential ontological argument, which aims to deduce the existence of God from the concept of God. Anselm defined God as the greatest conceivable being. He reasoned that an entity that did not exist outside his mind would not be the greatest conceivable being, leading him to the conclusion God exists.[103]
The philosophers David Hume (1711–1776) and Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) rejected the idea that existence is a property. According to Hume, objects are bundles of qualities. He said existence is not a property because there is no impression of existence besides the bundled qualities.[105] Kant came to a similar conclusion in his criticism of the ontological argument; according to him, this proof fails because one cannot deduce from the definition of a concept whether entities described by this concept exist. Kant said existence does not add anything to the concept of the object; it only indicates this concept is exemplified.[106] According to philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), there is no pure being or pure nothing, only becoming.[107]
Philosopher and psychologist Franz Brentano (1838–1917) agreed with Kant's criticism and his claim that existence is not a real predicate. Brentano used this idea to develop his theory of judgments, which states all judgments are existential judgments; they either affirm or deny the existence of something. He stated judgments like "some zebras are striped" have the logical form "there is a striped zebra" while judgments like "all zebras are striped" have the logical form "there is not a non-striped zebra".[108]
Gottlob Frege (1848–1925) and Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) aimed to refine the idea of what it means that existence is not a regular property. They distinguished between regular first-order properties of individuals and second-order properties of other properties. According to their view, existence is the second-order property of "being instantiated".[109] Russell further developed the idea that general sentences like "lions exist" are at their most fundamental form about individuals by stating that there is an individual that is a lion.[110]
Willard Van Orman Quine (1908–2000) followed Frege and Russell in accepting existence as a second-order property. He drew a close link between existence and the role of quantification in formal logic.[111] He applied this idea to scientific theories and stated a scientific theory is committed to the existence of an entity if the theory quantifies over this entity. For example, if a theory in biology claims "there are populations with genetic diversity", this theory has an ontological commitment to the existence of populations with genetic diversity.[112] Alexius Meinong (1853–1920) was an influential critic of second-order theories and developed the alternative view that existence is a property of individuals and that not all individuals have this property.[113]
Eastern philosophy
Many schools of thought in Eastern philosophy discuss the problem of existence and its implications. For instance, the ancient
A central doctrine in
A central idea in many schools of
The concept of existence played a central role in Arabic-Persian philosophy. The Islamic philosophers Avicenna (980–1037 CE) and Al-Ghazali (1058–1111 CE) discussed the relationship between existence and essence, and said the essence of an entity is prior to its existence. The additional step of instantiating the essence is required for the entity to come into existence. Philosopher Mulla Sadra (1571–1636 CE) rejected this priority of essence over existence, and said essence is only a concept that is used by the mind to grasp existence. Existence, by contrast, encompasses the whole of reality, according to his view.[119]
Others
Indigenous American philosophies tend to emphasize the interconnectedness of all existence and the importance of maintaining balance and harmony with nature. This is often combined with an animist outlook that ascribes a spiritual essence to some or all entities, including plants, rocks, and places.[120]
The interest in the relational aspect of existence is also found in African philosophy, which explores how all entities are causally linked to form an ordered world. African philosophy also examines the idea of an underlying and all-pervading life force responsible for animating entities and their influence on each other.[121]
In various disciplines
Formal logic
Formal logic studies
Many logical systems that are based on first-order logic also follow this idea. Free logic is an exception because it allows the presence of empty names that do not refer to an object in the domain.[125] With this modification, it is possible to apply logical reasoning to fictional objects instead of limiting it to regular objects.[126] In free logic one can express that Pegasus is a flying horse using the formula . As a consequence of this modification, one cannot infer from this type of statement that something exists. This means the inference from to is invalid in free logic, even though it is valid in first-order logic. Free logic uses an additional existence predicate () to say a singular term refers to an existing object. For example, the formula can be used to say Homer exists while the formula states Pegasus does not exist.[127]
Others
The disciplines of epistemology, philosophy of mind, and philosophy of language deal with mental and linguistic representations in their attempt to understand the nature of knowledge, the mind, and language. This brings with it the problem of reference or how representations can refer to existing objects. Examples of such representations are beliefs, thoughts, perceptions, words, and sentences. For instance, in the sentence "Barack Obama is a Democrat", the name "Barack Obama" refers to a particular individual. The problem of reference also affects the epistemology of perception. In particular, this concerns the problem of whether perceptual impressions establish a direct contact with reality.[128]
Closely related to the problem of reference is the relationship between true representations and existence. According to truthmaker theory, true representations require a truthmaker, i.e., an entity whose existence is responsible for the representation being true. For example, the sentence "kangaroos live in Australia" is true because there are kangaroos in Australia; the existence of these kangaroos is the truthmaker of the sentence. Truthmaker theory states there is a close relationship between truth and existence; there exists a truthmaker for every true representation.[129]
Many of the individual sciences are concerned with the existence of particular types of entities and the laws governing them, such as physical things in physics and living entities in biology.
A similar problem concerns the existence of social kinds, which are basic concepts used in the
Existentialism is a school of thought that explores the nature of human existence. Among its key ideas is that existence precedes essence. This means that existence is more basic than essence. As a result, the nature and purpose of human beings are not pre-existing but develop in the process of living. According to this view, humans are thrown into a world that lacks pre-existing intrinsic meaning. They must determine for themselves their purpose and what meaning their life should have. Existentialists use this idea to explore the role of freedom and responsibility in actively shaping one's life.[135] Feminist existentialists investigate the effects of gender on human existence, for example, on the experience of freedom.[136] Influential existentialists include Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980), and Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986).[137] Existentialism has influenced various reflections on the role of human existence in sociology. Existentialist sociology examines the ways humans experience the social world and construct reality.[138] Existence theory is a relatively recent approach that focuses on the temporal aspect of existence in society. It explores how the existential milestones to which people aspire influence their lives.[139]
Mathematicians are often interested in the existence of certain
Many debates in theology revolve around the existence of the divine, and various arguments have been presented for and against God's existence.
See also
References
Notes
- categories of being.[7]
- ^ In his own terminology, Heidegger reserves the terms "Existenz" and "Ek-sistenz" to characterize the mode of being of Dasein, which is the mode of being characteristic of human beings.[23]
- sunflower are individual entities that both exemplify the universal yellow.[27]
- ^ A property is instantiated if an entity has this property.[30]
- the Moon. Unlike universals, they cannot exist at several places at the same time.[32]
- four fundamental forces acting on them are the most basic constituents of the universe. String theory provides an alternative explanation by focusing one-dimensional strings and their interactions.[53]
- ^ Philosophy of mind is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature of mental phenomena and how they are related to the physical world.[56]
- ^ Some theorists use the term "ontological idealism" to distinguish it from idealistic views in epistemology.[58]
- empiricist philosophers also include entities that are not directly observable, like powers and moral obligations.[62]
- ^ Unlike abstract possibility, potentiality is real power possessed by a thing to undergo certain changes. For example, an acorn has the potential to become a fully grown oak but not an elm.[101]
Citations
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- ^ a b Lowe 2005, Existence
- ^
- ^ Hoad 1993, p. 160
- ^
- Lowe 2005, p. 277
- Sorensen 2023, Lead Section
- Vallicella 2010, p. xi
- ^
- Carroll & Markosian 2010, pp. 1–3
- Koons & Pickavance 2015, pp. 1–2
- Mumford 2012, § What Is an Introduction?
- ^
- Loux & Crisp 2017, pp. 10–14
- Van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023, § 1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics
- Campbell 2006, § The Categories Of Being
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- ^
- Prior 2006, p. 493
- Van Inwagen 2023
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- ^
- Van Inwagen 2023
- Nelson 2022, Lead Section, §2. Meinongianism
- Jubien 2004, p. 49
- ^
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- Gibson 1998, pp. 3–4
- ^
- Van Inwagen 2023
- Prior 2006, p. 493
- Gibson 1998, pp. 3–4
- ^ Hofweber 2023, § 3.1 Different Conceptions of Ontology
- ^
- MacLeod & Rubenstein, Lead Section
- Cowling 2019, Lead Section
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- ^ Lambert 1994, pp. 3–4
- ^ Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022, Lead Section
- ^
- Rescher 1957, pp. 65–69
- Hailperin 1967, p. 251
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- MacLeod & Rubenstein, Lead Section, § 1a. The Nature of Universals
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- Maurin 2019, Lead Section
- ^
- Gibson 1998, pp. 133–134
- Balaguer 2016, § 1. What is Platonism?
- ^ Gibson 1998, p. 138
- ^ Gibson 1998, pp. 3–4, 137
- ^
- Penelope 1998, Lead Section
- Falguera, Martínez-Vidal & Rosen 2022, lead section, § 1. Introduction
- Faye 2013, pp. 89–91
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- ^ Lowe 2005a, pp. 670–671
- ^
- Belfiore 2016, p. 110
- Faulkner & Gregersen 2017, p. 298
- Prior 2006, pp. 498–499
- ^
- Van Inwagen 2023
- Prior 2006, pp. 493, 498–499
- ^
- Casati & Fujikawa, §2a. Meinongianism
- Plebani 2013, p. 5
- ^
- Penelope 1998, Lead Section
- Gibson 1998, pp. 157–158
- Jubien 2004, pp. 49, 52
- ^
- Gibson 1998, pp. 157–158
- Pruss & Rasmussen 2018, pp. 1–2
- Jubien 2004, p. 52
- ^ Pruss & Rasmussen 2018, pp. 1–2
- ^ Pruss & Rasmussen 2018, pp. 1–4
- ^ Cowling 2017, pp. 82–83
- ^
- Gibson 1998, pp. 157–158
- Pruss & Rasmussen 2018, pp. 1–6
- Haan 2020, p. 381
- Turner 2004, p. 238
- ^
- Lin 2018, p. 152
- Nadler 2023, § 2.1 God or Nature
- ^
- Nelson 2022, §3. An Anti-Meinongian First-Order View
- Jubien 2004, pp. 49–50
- ^
- Nelson 2022, §2. Meinongianism
- Jubien 2004, pp. 49–50
- ^
- Lowe 2005, Existence
- Weatherson 2021, § 6. Modal Metaphysics
- ^
- Lowe 2005, Existence
- Casati & Fujikawa, Lead Section, §4. Why Is There Something Rather Than Nothing?
- Sorensen 2023, Lead Section, §1. Why Is There Something Rather Than Nothing?
- Pruss & Rasmussen 2018, pp. 4–5
- ^ Penelope 1998, Lead Section
- ^
- Martin & Wells 2022, pp. 1–4
- Schwichtenberg 2017, pp. 7–8
- Chang 2024, pp. 247
- ^
- Smart 2023, Lead Section, §Types of Materialist Theory
- Markosian 2009, pp. 486–487, Physical Object
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- ^
- Lowe 2000, pp. 1–2
- Crumley 2006, pp. 2–3
- ^
- Kelly 2004, pp. 87–88
- Smart 2023, Lead Section, § Types of Materialist Theory
- ^ Berendzen 2023, p. 17
- ^ Guyer & Horstmann 2023, § 9. The Fate of Idealism in the Twentieth Century
- ^ Sprigge 1998, Lead Section, "Idealism is now usually understood in philosophy as the view that mind is the most basic reality and that the physical world exists only as an appearance to or expression of mind, or as somehow mental in its inner essence."
- ^
- Kelly 2004, pp. 87–88
- Calef, Lead Section, § 3. Descartes’ Dualism
- ^ Lamarque 1998, Lead Section
- ^
- Kroon & Voltolini 2023, Lead Section
- Lamarque 1998, Lead Section
- Prior 2006, p. 493
- ^
- Kroon & Voltolini 2023, § 1. The Metaphysics of Fictional Entities
- Lamarque 1998, § 2. Deflationary theories, § 3. Hospitable theories
- ^
- Jacob 2023, 2. Intentional inexistence
- Kriegel 2007, pp. 307–308
- O’Madagain, § 2. Intentional Objects
- ^
- Casati & Fujikawa, Lead Section, §3. How Many Ways of Being Existent?
- McDaniel 2017, p. 77
- ^
- Casati & Fujikawa, Lead Section, §3. How Many Ways of Being Existent?
- McDaniel 2017, pp. 5–6
- ^ Casati & Fujikawa, §3. How Many Ways of Being Existent?
- ^
- ^
- Casati & Fujikawa, §3. How Many Ways of Being Existent?
- Gibson 1998, pp. 5–8
- ^
- Casati & Fujikawa, §3. How Many Ways of Being Existent?
- Berto & Plebani 2015, p. 60
- ^ a b c Casati & Fujikawa, §2a. Meinongianism
- ^ a b Nelson 2022, Lead Section
- ^
- Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022, Lead Section
- Lowe 2005, p. 683
- Bigelow 1998, Lead Section
- ^
- Nelson 2022, Lead Section
- Penelope 1998, Lead Section
- Casati & Fujikawa, Lead Section
- Blackburn 2008, Existence
- ^
- Penelope 1998, §1 Objects and Existence
- Nelson 2022, Lead Section, § 1. Frege and Russell: Existence Is Not a Property of Individuals
- ^
- Casati & Fujikawa, Lead Section, §1. Existence as a Second-Order Property and Its Relation to Quantification
- Blackburn 2008, Existence
- ^ a b
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- Casati & Fujikawa, §1. Existence as a Second-Order Property and Its Relation to Quantification
- ^
- Casati & Fujikawa, §1. Existence as a Second-Order Property and Its Relation to Quantification
- Lowe 2005, Existence
- ^ Nelson 2022, § 1. Frege and Russell: Existence Is Not a Property of Individuals
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- Casati & Fujikawa, Lead Section, §1. Existence as a Second-Order Property and Its Relation to Quantification
- Penelope 1998, §2 The Quantifier Account of Existence
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- Portner 2006, pp. 141–143
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- ^ Penelope 1998, §2 The Quantifier Account of Existence
- ^
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- Nelson 2022, § 1. Frege and Russell: Existence Is Not a Property of Individuals
- Penelope 1998, §2 The Quantifier Account of Existence
- Nelson 2022, § 1. Frege and Russell: Existence Is Not a Property of Individuals
- ^
- Casati & Fujikawa, Lead Section, §2. Existence as a First-Order Property and Its Relation to Quantification
- Nelson 2022, Lead Section
- ^
- Casati & Fujikawa, §2a. Meinongianism
- Lowe 2005, Existence
- ^
- Nelson 2022, § 2. Meinongianism
- Casati & Fujikawa, §2a. Meinongianism
- ^
- Casati & Fujikawa, §2a. Meinongianism
- Lowe 2005, Existence
- Küng 2012, p. 208
- ^ a b c Penelope 1998, §1 Objects and Existence
- ^
- Nelson 2022, § 2. Meinongianism
- Penelope 1998, §1 Objects and Existence
- ^
- Nelson 2022, § 2. Meinongianism
- Casati & Fujikawa, §2a. Meinongianism
- Casati & Fujikawa, §2a. Meinongianism
- Jacquette 2015, pp. 78–79, 180
- ^ a b Casati & Fujikawa, §2b. Universalism
- ^
- Nelson 2022, § 3. An Anti-Meinongian First-Order View
- Casati & Fujikawa, §2b. Universalism
- ^ Nelson 2022, § 3. An Anti-Meinongian First-Order View
- ^
- Graham, Lead Section, § 1. Presocratic Thought
- Duignan 2010, pp. 9–11
- ^
- ^
- Trott 2019, pp. 109–110
- Grayling 2019, § Aristotle
- ^
- ^
- Cohen & Reeve 2021, § 12. Actuality and Potentiality
- Ackrill 2005, p. 34
- ^
- Graham, § 6. Post-Hellenistic Thought
- Adamson 2015, pp. 209–215
- Emilsson 2005, pp. 357–388
- Lawson 2004, p. 200
- ^
- Grayling 2019, § Anselm
- Dehsen 2013, p. 10
- Prior 2006, pp. 493–494
- ^ Prior 2006, p. 494
- ^
- Nelson 2022, Lead Section
- Prior 2006, p. 495
- ^
- Nelson 2022, Lead Section
- Casati & Fujikawa, §1. Existence as a Second-Order Property and Its Relation to Quantification
- ^
- Rosen 2014, pp. 15, 113–114
- Magee 2010, pp. 47–48
- ^
- Kriegel 2018, pp. 103–104, 119
- Brandl & Textor 2022, Lead Section, §1.3 Part III: Existential Judgements, §2. Brentano and His Precursors on Existential Judgement
- Rollinger 2013, p. 226
- Husserl 2019, p. 184
- ^
- Nelson 2022, Lead Section
- Blackburn 2008, Existence
- ^ Prior 2006, pp. 496–498
- ^
- Lowe 2005, Existence
- Casati & Fujikawa, §2a. Meinongianism
- ^ Casati & Fujikawa, §1. Existence as a Second-Order Property and Its Relation to Quantification, §2a. Meinongianism
- ^
- Nelson 2022, Lead Section
- Casati & Fujikawa, §2a. Meinongianism
- ^
- Leaman 2002, pp. 77–78
- Perrett 2016, § The Classical Period of Indian Philosophy
- Ruzsa 2023, Lead Section, §4. Metaphysics
- Eraly 2011, pp. 514–516
- ^
- Perrett 2016, § The Medieval Period of Indian Philosophy
- Dalal 2021, Lead Section, § 1. Life and Works
- Menon, Lead Section
- Dalal 2010, p. 6
- ^
- Vanamali 2015, pp. 53–54
- Reddy 2020, p. 110
- Sastry 2022, p. 38
- ^
- Smith & Worden 2003, p. 18
- Gómez 2007, p. 110
- Allen 2015, p. 114
- ^
- Perkins 2019, Lead Section, §3.1 Monism
- EB staff 2017, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy
- Wang, Bao & Guan 2020, pp. 6–8
- Blishen 2023, pp. 7–8
- ^
- Leaman 2002, pp. 77–78
- DeGrood 1976, p. 37
- Dalal 2010a, pp. 41–42
- ^
- Pack 2022, pp. 162–163
- Sinclair 2022, pp. 96–97
- Eyghen 2023, pp. 131–134
- Cohan 2010, p. 49
- ^
- Lajul 2017, p. 29
- Iyare 2023, p. 478
- ^
- MacFarlane 2017
- Corkum 2015, pp. 753–767
- Blair & Johnson 2000, pp. 93–95
- Magnus 2005, pp. 12–14, § 1.6 Formal Languages
- ^
- Shapiro & Kouri Kissel 2022, §2.1 Building Blocks
- Cook 2009, p. 111
- Montague 2018, p. 214
- Casati & Fujikawa, Lead Section, §1. Existence as a Second-Order Property and Its Relation to Quantification
- ^
- Roberts 2009, p. 52
- Johar 2024, p. 38
- ^ Nolt 2021, Lead Section, §1. The Basics
- ^ Nolt 2021, §5.4 Logics of Fiction
- ^
- Lenzen 2013, p. 118
- Nolt 2021, Lead Section, §1. The Basics, §5.4 Logics of Fiction
- Sider 2010, p. 129
- ^
- Urban 2014, p. 33
- Raftopoulos & Machamer 2012, pp. 1–2, 142
- Michaelson & Reimer 2022, Lead Section, § 1. Introduction
- Audi 2006, § Epistemology, § Philosophy of Mind, § Philosophy of Language
- ^
- Asay, Lead Section
- Smith, Mulligan & Simons 2013, pp. 9–10
- ^ Ney 2014, p. xiii
- ^
- Brzović, Lead Section, § 3. Metaphysics of Natural Kinds
- Bird & Tobin 2024, Lead Section, § 1.2 Natural Kind Realism
- Liston, Lead Section
- ^
- ^
- ^
- Trask 2007, p. 154
- Parkin 2013, p. 238
- ^
- Burnham & Papandreopoulos, Lead Section, §1c. Freedom, §1e. Existence, §1f. Irrationality/Absurdity
- Aho 2023, Lead Section
- ^
- ^
- Burnham & Papandreopoulos, § Key Existentialist Philosophers
- Aho 2023, Lead Section
- ^ Melnikov & Kotarba 2015, Existential Sociology
- ^
- Baert, Morgan & Ushiyama 2022, pp. 7–8
- Flisbäck & Bengtsson 2024, pp. 1–2
- ^
- Chihara 1990, p. 3
- Lucas 1990, p. 75
- ^
- ^ Lucas 1990, p. 75
- ^
- Azzouni 2015, p. 133
- Chihara 1990, pp. 3–4
- Lucas 1990, pp. 75–76
- Balaguer 2023, Lead Section
- ^
- Reichenbach 2023, Lead Section
- Ratzsch & Koperski 2023, § 1. Introduction
- ^ Ratzsch & Koperski 2023, § 1. Introduction
- ^ Beebe, Lead Section
- ^ Clark, § 2. The Evidentialist Objection to Belief in God
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External links
- Quotations related to Existence at Wikiquote
- The Concept of Existence: History and Definitions from Leading Philosophers