Free Derry

Coordinates: 54°59′49″N 07°19′32″W / 54.99694°N 7.32556°W / 54.99694; -7.32556
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"Free Derry Corner" at the corner of Lecky Road and Fahan Street in the Bogside. The slogan was first painted in January 1969 after an unauthorised midnight incursion by RUC men into the Bogside.

Free Derry (

Protestant/unionist government. The civil rights movement highlighted the sectarianism and police brutality of the overwhelmingly Protestant police force, the Royal Ulster Constabulary
(RUC).

The area, which included the mainly Catholic Bogside and Creggan neighbourhoods, was first secured by community activists on 5 January 1969 following an incursion into the Bogside by RUC officers. Residents built barricades and carried clubs and similar arms to prevent the RUC from entering. Its name was taken from a sign painted on a gable wall in the Bogside that read, "You are now entering Free Derry." For six days, the region was a no-go area, after which the residents dismantled the barricades and RUC patrols resumed. Tensions remained high over the following months.

On 12 August 1969, sporadic violence led to the

Derry Citizens Defence Association (DCDA) declared their intention to hold the area against both the RUC and the British Army until their demands were met. The British Army made no attempt to enter the area. The situation continued until October 1969 when, following publication of the Hunt Report, military police
were allowed in.

The Irish Republican Army (IRA) began to rearm and recruit after August 1969. In December 1969, it split into the Official IRA and the Provisional IRA. Both were supported by the people of Free Derry. Meanwhile, the initially positive relations between the British Army and the nationalist community worsened. In July 1971, there was a surge of recruitment into the IRA after two young men were shot dead by British troops in Derry. The government introduced internment on 9 August 1971 in Operation Demetrius. In response, barricades were again erected around Free Derry. This time, Free Derry was defended by well-armed members of the IRA. From within the area they launched attacks on the British Army, and the Provisionals began a bombing campaign in the city centre. As before, unarmed "auxiliaries" manned the barricades, and crime was handled by a voluntary body known as the Free Derry Police.

Support for the IRA rose further after Bloody Sunday in January 1972, when 13 unarmed men and boys were shot dead by the British Parachute Regiment during a protest march in the Bogside (a 14th man was wounded and died 4+1⁄2 months later). Following the Bloody Friday bombings, the British retook the "no-go" areas. Free Derry came to an end on 31 July 1972 in Operation Motorman, when thousands of British troops moved in with armoured vehicles and bulldozers.

Background

council, Londonderry Corporation, from 1923 onwards.[2] The Unionists maintained their majority, firstly, by manipulating the constituency boundaries (gerrymandering) so that the South Ward, with a nationalist majority, returned eight councillors while the much smaller North Ward and Waterside Ward, with unionist majorities, returned twelve councillors between them; secondly, by allowing only ratepayers to vote in local elections, rather than one man, one vote, so that a higher number of nationalists, who did not own or rent homes, were disenfranchised; and thirdly, by denying council housing to nationalists outside the South Ward constituency. The result was that there were about 2,000 nationalist families, and practically no unionists, on the housing waiting list, and that housing in the nationalist area was crowded and of a very poor condition.[3] The South Ward comprised the Bogside, Brandywell, Creggan, Bishop Street and Foyle Road, and it was this area that would become Free Derry.[4]

The Guildhall, where members of the Derry Housing Action Committee disrupted meetings of Londonderry Corporation in 1968

The

MP Eddie McAteer and Westminster MP Gerry Fitt.[8] Subsequently, the police "broke ranks and used their batons indiscriminately on people in Duke Street". Marchers trying to escape met another party of police and "these police also used their batons indiscriminately."[9] Water cannons were also used. The police action caused outrage in the nationalist area of Derry, and at a meeting four days later the Derry Citizens' Action Committee (DCAC) was formed, with John Hume as chairman and Ivan Cooper as vice-chairman.[10]

The first barricades

Main article: Burntollet Bridge incident

Another group formed as a result of the events of 5 October was People's Democracy, a group of students in Queen's University Belfast. They organised a march from Belfast to Derry in support of civil rights, starting out with about forty young people on 1 January 1969.[11] The march met with violent opposition from loyalist counter-demonstrators at several points along the route. Finally, at Burntollet Bridge, five miles outside Derry, they were attacked by a mob of about two hundred wielding clubs—some of them studded with nails—and stones. Half of the attackers were later identified from press photographs as members of the B-Specials. The police, who were at the scene, chatted to the B-Specials as they prepared their ambush, and then failed to protect the marchers, many of whom ran into the river and were attacked with stones thrown from the bank.[12] Dozens of marchers were taken to hospital. The remainder continued on to Derry where they were attacked once more on their way to Craigavon Bridge before they finally reached Guildhall Square, where they held a rally.[11] Rioting broke out after the rally. Police drove rioters into the Bogside, but did not come after them. In the early hours of the following morning, 5 January, members of the RUC charged into St. Columb's Wells and Lecky Road in the Bogside, breaking windows and beating residents.[13] In his report on the disturbances, Lord Cameron remarked that "for such conduct among members of a disciplined and well-led force there can be no acceptable justification or excuse" and added that "its effect in rousing passions and inspiring hostility towards the police was regrettably great."[14]

That afternoon over 1,500 Bogside residents built

Irish Times reported that "the infrastructure of revolutionary control in the area has not been developed beyond the maintenance of patrols."[19] Following some acts of destruction and of violence late in the week, members of the DCAC including Ivan Cooper addressed residents on Friday, 10 January and called on them to dismantle the barricades. The barricades were taken down the following morning.[22]

April 1969

Over the next three months there were violent clashes, with local youths throwing stones at police.[20] Violence came to a head on Saturday, 19 April after a planned march from Burntollet Bridge to the city centre was banned. A protest in the city centre led to clashes with "Paisleyites"—unionists in sympathy with the anti-civil rights stance of Ian Paisley. Police attempting to drive the protesters back into the Bogside were themselves driven back to their barracks. A series of pitched battles followed, and barricades were built, often under the supervision of Bernadette Devlin, newly elected MP for Mid Ulster.[23] Police pursuing rioters broke into a house in William Street and severely beat the occupant, Samuel Devenny, his family and two friends. Devenny was brought to hospital "bleeding profusely from a number of head wounds."[24] At midnight four hundred RUC men in full riot gear and carrying riot shields occupied the Bogside.[25] Convoys of police vehicles drove through the area with headlights blazing.[26]

The following day, several thousand residents, led by the DCAC, withdrew to the Creggan and issued an ultimatum to the RUC – withdraw within two hours or be driven out. With fifteen minutes of the two hours remaining, the police marched out through the Butcher's Gate, even as the residents were entering from the far side.[25] The barricades were not maintained on this occasion, and routine patrols were not prevented.[27]

Samuel Devenny suffered a heart attack four days after his beating. On 17 July he suffered a further heart attack and died.[28] Thousands attended his funeral, and the mood was sufficiently angry that it was clear the annual Apprentice Boys' parade, scheduled for 12 August, could not take place without causing serious disturbance.[29]

August – October 1969

Derry Citizens Defence Association
were at number 10.

The Apprentice Boys' parade is an annual celebration by unionists of the relief of the

Johnnie White, another leading republican and leader of the James Connolly Republican Club. Street committees were formed under the overall command of the DCDA and barricades were built on the night of 11 August.[31] The parade took place as planned on 12 August. As it passed through Waterloo Place, on the edge of the Bogside, hostilities began between supporters and opponents of the parade. Fighting between the two groups continued for two hours, then the police joined in. They charged up William Street against the Bogsiders, followed by the 'Paisleyites'. They were met with a hail of stones and petrol bombs. The ensuing battle became known as the Battle of the Bogside. Late in the evening, having been driven back repeatedly, the police fired canisters of CS gas into the crowd. Youths on the roof of a high-rise block of flats on Rossville Street threw petrol bombs down on the police.[32] Walkie-talkies were used to maintain contact between different areas of fighting and DCDA headquarters in Paddy Doherty's house in Westland Street,[33] and first aid stations were operating, staffed by doctors, nurses and volunteers. Women and girls made milk-bottle crates of petrol bombs for supply to the youths in the front line[34] and "Radio Free Derry" broadcast to the fighters and their families. On the third day of fighting, 14 August, the Northern Ireland Government mobilised the Ulster Special Constabulary (B-Specials), a force greatly feared by nationalists in Derry and elsewhere.[32] Before they engaged, however, British troops were deployed at the scene, carrying automatic rifles and sub-machine guns. The RUC and B-Specials withdrew, and the troops took up positions outside the barricaded area.[35]

A deputation that included Eamonn McCann met senior army officers and told them that the army would not be allowed in until certain demands were met, including the disarming of the RUC, the disbandment of the B-Specials and the abolition of Stormont (the

Government of Northern Ireland). The officers agreed that neither troops nor police would enter the Bogside and Creggan districts.[36] A 'peace corps' was formed to maintain law and order. When the British Home Secretary, Jim Callaghan, visited Northern Ireland and announced his intention to visit the Bogside on 28 August, he was told that he would not be allowed to bring either police or soldiers with him. Callaghan agreed.[37] Accompanied by members of the Defence Committee, he was "swept along by a surging crowd of thousands" up Rossvile Street and into Lecky Road, where he "took refuge" in a local house,[38] and later addressed crowds from an upstairs window. In preparation for Callaghan's visit the "Free Derry" wall was painted white and the "You are now entering Free Derry" sign was professionally re-painted in black lettering.[39]

Following Callaghan's visit, some barricades were breached, but the majority remained while the people awaited concrete evidence of reform.[40] Still the army made no move to enter the area. Law and order was maintained by a 'peace corps'—volunteers organised by the DCDA to patrol the streets and man the barricades. There was very little crime. Punishment, in the words of Eamonn McCann, "as often as not consisted of a stern lecture from Seán Keenan on the need for solidarity within the area."[41] In September the barricades were replaced with a white line painted on the road.[42]

The Hunt Report on the future of policing in Northern Ireland was presented to the Stormont cabinet in early October. Jim Callaghan held talks with the cabinet in Belfast on 10 October, following which the report's recommendations were accepted and made public. They included the recommendation that the RUC should be 'ordinarily' unarmed, and that the B-Specials should be phased out and replaced by a new force. The new RUC Chief Constable, Arthur Young, an Englishman, was announced, and travelled to Belfast with Callaghan. The same day, Seán Keenan announced that the DCDA was to be dissolved. On 11 October Callaghan and Young visited Free Derry, and on 12 October the first military police entered the Bogside, on foot and unarmed.[43]

IRA resurgence

The

class struggle and its aim was to unite the Irish nationalist and unionist working classes to overthrow capitalism, both British and Irish.[45] Republican Clubs were formed in Northern Ireland, where Sinn Féin was proscribed.[46] These clubs were involved in the formation of the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) in 1967.[47] In Derry, the James Connolly Republican Club worked closely with Labour Party radicals, with whom they set up the Derry Housing Action Committee and Derry Unemployed Action Committee. The Derry Citizens' Defence Association was formed initially by republicans, who then invited other nationalists to join.[48] Although there were tensions between the younger leaders like Johnnie White and the older, traditional republicans such as Seán Keenan, both sides saw the unrest of 1968–69 as a chance to advance republican aims, and the two shared the platform at the Easter Rising commemoration in April 1969.[49]

The events of August 1969 in Derry, and more particularly in Belfast where the IRA was unable to prevent loss of life or protect families burned out of their homes, brought to a head the divisions that had already appeared within the movement between the radicals and the traditionalists, and led to a split in December 1969 into the

defensive purposes only, although the Provisionals were planning towards an offensive campaign.[51] In Derry there was far less hostility between the two organisations than elsewhere and householders commonly paid subscriptions to both.[52] When rioters were arrested after the Officials' Easter parade in March 1970, Officials and Provisionals picketed their trial together.[53] At the start the Officials attracted most of the younger members.[54] Martin McGuinness, who in August 1969 had helped defend the barricades, initially joined the Officials, but a few months later left to join the Provisionals.[55]

Relations between the British Army and the residents had steadily decayed since the first appearance of troops in August 1969. In September, after clashes between nationalist and unionist crowds that led to the death of a Protestant man, William King, the British Army erected a 'peace ring' to enclose the nationalist population in the area they had previously controlled. Roads into the city centre were closed at night and people were prevented from walking on certain streets.[56] Although some moderate nationalists accepted this as necessary, there was anger among young people. Clashes between youths and troops became more frequent. The riot following the Officials' Easter parade in March 1970 marked the first time that the army used 'snatch squads', who rushed into the Bogside wielding batons to make arrests.[57] The snatch squads soon became a common feature of army arrest operations. There was also a belief that they were arresting people at random, sometimes days after the alleged offence, and based on the identification of people that they had seen from a considerable distance.[58] The rioters were condemned as hooligans by moderates, who saw the riots as hampering attempts to resolve the situation. The Labour radicals and Official republicans, still working together, tried to turn the youth away from rioting and create socialist organisations—one such organisation was named the Young Hooligans Association—but to no avail.[59] The Provisionals, while disapproving of riots, viewed them as the inevitable consequence of British occupation.[60] This philosophy was more attractive to rioters, and some of them joined the Provisional IRA. The deaths of two leading Provisionals in a premature explosion in June 1970 resulted in young militants becoming more prominent in the organisation. Nevertheless, up to July 1971 the Provisional IRA remained numerically small.[61]

Two men, Séamas Cusack and Desmond Beattie, were shot dead in separate incidents in the early morning and afternoon of 8 July 1971. They were the first people to be killed by the British Army in Derry. In both cases the British Army claimed that the men were attacking them with guns or bombs, while eyewitnesses insisted that both were unarmed. The Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP), the newly formed party of which John Hume and Ivan Cooper were leading members, withdrew from Stormont in protest, but among residents there was a perception that moderate policies had failed. The result was a surge of support for the IRA. The Provisionals held a meeting the following Sunday at which they called on people to "join the IRA". Following the meeting, people queued up to join,[62] and there was large-scale rioting. The British Army post at Bligh's Lane came under sustained attack, and troops there and around the city came under fire from the IRA.[63]

Internment and the third Free Derry

The increasing violence in Derry and elsewhere led to increasing speculation that internment would be introduced in Northern Ireland, and on 9 August 1971 hundreds of republicans and nationalists were arrested in dawn raids. In Derry, residents came out onto the streets to resist the arrests, and fewer people were taken there than elsewhere; nevertheless leading figures including Seán Keenan and Johnnie White were interned.[64] In response, barricades were erected once again and the third Free Derry came into existence. Unlike its predecessors, this Free Derry was marked by a strong IRA presence, both Official and Provisional. It was defended by armed paramilitaries—a no-go area, one in which British security forces were unable to operate.[65]

Gun attacks on the British Army increased. Six soldiers were wounded in the first day after internment, and shortly afterwards a soldier was killed—the first to be killed by either IRA in Derry.[65] The army moved into the area in force on 18 August to dismantle the barricades. A gun battle ensued in which a young Provisional IRA officer, Eamonn Lafferty, was killed. A crowd staging a sit-down protest was hosed down and the protesters, including John Hume and Ivan Cooper, arrested. With barricades re-appearing as quickly as they were removed, the army eventually abandoned their attempt.[66]

The Derry Provisionals had little contact with the IRA elsewhere. They had few weapons (about twenty) which they used mainly for sniping.[67] At the same time, they launched their bombing campaign in Derry. Unlike in Belfast, they were careful to avoid killing or injuring civilians. Eamonn McCann wrote that "the Derry Provos, under Martin McGuinness, had managed to bomb the city centre until it looked as if it had been hit from the air without causing any civilian casualties."[68]

Although both IRAs operated openly, neither was in control of Free Derry. The barricades were manned by unarmed 'auxiliaries'.[69] Crime was dealt with by a volunteer force called the Free Derry Police, which was headed by Tony O'Doherty, a Derry footballer and Northern Ireland International.[70]

Bloody Sunday

The Bloody Sunday memorial in Rossville Street. All of the dead belonged to Free Derry.
Main article: Bloody Sunday (1972)

An anti-internment protest organised by NICRA at Magilligan Camp in January 1972 was met with violence from the

1st Battalion, The Parachute Regiment (1 Para).[71] NICRA had organised a march from the Creggan to Derry city centre, in defiance of a ban, on the following Sunday, 30 January 1972. Both IRAs were asked, and agreed, to suspend operations on that day to ensure the march passed off peacefully.[72] The British Army erected barricades around the Free Derry area to prevent marchers from reaching the city centre. On the day, march organisers turned the march away from the barriers and up to Free Derry Corner, but some youths proceeded to the barrier at William Street and stoned soldiers. Troops from 1 Para then moved into Free Derry and opened fire, killing thirteen people, all of whom were subsequently found to be unarmed.[73] A fourteenth shooting victim died four months later in June 1972.[74] Like the killing of Cusack and Beattie the previous year, Bloody Sunday had the effect of hugely increasing recruitment to the IRA, even among people who previously would have been 'moderates'.[75]

February – July 1972

Both the Provisional and Official IRA stepped up attacks after Bloody Sunday, with the tacit support of the residents.

William Whitelaw, the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.[78] The talks were not resumed after the ending of the truce following a violent confrontation in Belfast when troops prevented Catholic families from taking over houses in the Lenadoon estate.[79]

Political pressure for the action against the "no-go" areas increased after the events of Bloody Friday in Belfast. A British Army attack was considered inevitable, and the IRA took the decision not to resist it.[80] On 31 July 1972, Operation Motorman was launched when thousands of British troops, equipped with armoured cars and armoured bulldozers (AVREs), dismantled the barricades and occupied the area.[81]

Subsequent history

After Operation Motorman, the British Army controlled the Bogside and Creggan by stationing large numbers of troops within the area, by conducting large-scale 'search' operations that were in fact undertaken for purposes of intelligence gathering, and by setting up more than a dozen covert observation posts.[82] Over the following years IRA violence in the city was contained to the point where it was possible to believe 'the war was over' in the area, although there were still frequent street riots.[82] Nationalists—even those who did not support the IRA—remained bitterly opposed to the army and to the state.[83]

Many of the residents' original grievances were addressed with the passing of the Local Government Act (Northern Ireland) 1972, which redrew the electoral boundaries and introduced universal adult suffrage based on the single transferable vote. Elections were held in May 1973.[84] Nationalists gained a majority on the council for the first time since 1923.[85] Since then the area has been extensively redeveloped, with modern housing replacing the old houses and flats. The Free Derry era is commemorated by the Free Derry wall, the murals of the Bogside Artists and the Museum of Free Derry.[86]

See also

References

  1. JSTOR 20553451
    .
  2. ^ History of the Bogside Archived 25 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Museum of Free Derry. Retrieved 11 April 2009.
  3. ^ Londonderry: One man, no vote Archived 23 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine, The Campaign for Social Justice in Northern Ireland, (19 February 1965). Retrieved 11 November 2008.
  4. ^ Introduction Archived 30 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Museum of Free Derry. Retrieved 11 November 2008.
  5. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 27
  6. ^ a b c The Derry March – Chronology of Events Surrounding the March Archived 5 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Conflict Archive on the Internet. Retrieved 11 November 2008.
  7. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 37
  8. ^ Lord Cameron, Disturbances in Northern Ireland, chapter 4, paragraph 49
  9. ^ Lord Cameron, Disturbances in Northern Ireland, chapter 4, paragraph 51
  10. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 45
  11. ^
    ISBN 0-9501451-0-6 (CAIN Web Service Archived 20 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine
    )
  12. ^ The Sunday Times Insight Team, Ulster, Penguin, 1972, pp. 66–67
  13. ^ a b 1,500 arm to defend their area, The Irish Times, 6 January 1969
  14. ^ Lord Cameron, Disturbances in Northern Ireland, chapter 14, paragraph 177
  15. ^ See photograph at "Free Derry". Museum of Free Derry. Archived from the original on 15 September 2017. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
  16. ^ Kerr, Adrian (16 November 2009). "A silent and powerful witness to troubled times". Derry Journal. Archived from the original on 15 September 2017. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
  17. Pride Week: "'Free Derry' is pink with pride", BBC News Archived 22 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  18. ^ Irish Times, 8 January 1969
  19. ^ a b Advice given for Derry 'Revolution', The Irish Times, 11 January 1969, page 14
  20. ^ a b McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 56
  21. ^ Calmer weekend in Derry, The Irish Times, 10 January 1969
  22. ^ Derry barricades to come down, The Irish Times, 11 January 1969
  23. ^ Devlin, Bernadette, The Price of my Soul, pp. 184 – 186
  24. ^ Ombudsman's Report, section 3: The incident at the Devenny home (Pat Finucane Centre Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine)
  25. ^ a b RUC obey Bogside ultimatum, The Irish Times, 21 April 1969
  26. ^ Devlin, Bernadette, The Price of My Soul, p. 187
  27. ^ No major clashes in Derry, The Irish Times, 22 April 1969
  28. ^ Ombudsman's Report, section 5: Mr. Devenny's death
  29. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites p. 47
  30. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 21
  31. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, pp. 58 – 59
  32. ^ a b History – Battle of the Bogside Archived 31 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine, The Museum of Free Derry. Retrieved 11 November 2008.
  33. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 60
  34. ^ Bogside like war-devastated area, The Irish Times, 13 August 1969
  35. ^ Adams, Gerry, The Politics of Irish Freedom, Brandon Books, Dingle, 1986, p. 33
  36. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 64
  37. ^ Callaghan to enter Bogside without bodyguard, The Irish Times, 28 August 1969, page 4
  38. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 69
  39. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 68
  40. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites, p. 120
  41. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 67
  42. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites, p. 121
  43. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 72
  44. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites, p. 103
  45. ^ Bishop, Patrick, and Mallie, Eamonn, The Provisional IRA, pp. 51–54
  46. ^ Feeney, Brian, Sinn Féin: A Hundred Turbulent Years, p. 232
  47. ^ Feeney, Brian, Sinn Féin: A Hundred Turbulent Years, p. 236
  48. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 58
  49. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites, pp. 40,42
  50. ^ Bell, J. Bowyer, The Secret Army, pp. 366–367
  51. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites, p. 163
  52. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 96
  53. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites, p. 172
  54. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 74
  55. ^ Bishop, Patrick, and Mallie, Eamonn, The Provisional IRA, pp. 144, 155
  56. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites, pp. 136–7
  57. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites, p. 151
  58. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, pp. 81–2
  59. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 84
  60. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites, p. 155
  61. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites, p. 179
  62. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, pp. 89–90
  63. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites, p. 233
  64. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town, p. 92
  65. ^ a b Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites, p. 236
  66. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites pp. 238–9
  67. ^ Bishop, Patrick, and Mallie, Eamonn, The Provisional IRA pp.196–7
  68. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town p. 106
  69. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites p. 243
  70. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town p. 100
  71. ^ Bishop, Patrick, and Mallie, Eamonn, The Provisional IRA p. 207
  72. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites pp. 279–280
  73. ^ Bishop, Patrick, and Mallie, Eamonn, The Provisional IRA pp. 107–8
  74. ^ 'Bloody Sunday', Derry 30 January 1972 – Circumstances in Which People were Killed Archived 6 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine, CAIN. Retrieved 11 November 2008.
  75. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites p. 247
  76. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites pp. 247–8
  77. ^ Bishop, Patrick, and Mallie, Eamonn, The Provisional IRA p. 199
  78. ^ Bishop, Patrick, and Mallie, Eamonn, The Provisional IRA p. 226
  79. ^ Bell, J. Bowyer, The Secret Army: The IRA, p. 391
  80. ^ McCann, Eamonn, War and an Irish Town p. 114
  81. ^ Operation Banner: An Analysis of Military Operations in Northern Ireland Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, prepared under the direction of the Chief of the General Staff. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
  82. ^ a b Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites pp. 250–1
  83. ^ Ó Dochartaigh, Niall, From Civil Rights to Armalites p. 252
  84. ^ Callanan, Mark and Keogan, Justin F., Local Government in Ireland, Institute of Public Administration, Dublin, 2003, p. 462
  85. ^ "The Local Government Elections 1973–1981: Londonderry". ARK. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 16 April 2015.
  86. ^ Davenport, Fionn et al., Ireland, Lonely Planet, Melbourne, 2006,p. 629

Bibliography

External links

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