Governor General of Canada

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Governor General of Canada
Gouverneure générale du Canada
Badge of the governor general
Flag of the governor general
Incumbent
Mary Simon
since 26 July 2021
Style
AbbreviationGG
Residence
Appointer
prime minister
Term lengthAt His Majesty's pleasure
Formation1 July 1867
First holderThe Viscount Monck
DeputyDeputies of the governor general
Salary$342,100 annually
Websitewww.gg.ca Edit this at Wikidata
Monarchy of Canada
This article is part of a series
Viceroys
Residences and household
Constitution
King-in-Council
Legal
Symbols
Ceremonial

The governor general of Canada (

Inuk leader from Nunavik in Quebec, Simon is the first Indigenous person to hold the office.[2]

As the sovereign's representative, the governor general carries out the day-to-day constitutional and ceremonial duties of the monarch. The constitutional duties include appointing

letters of credence from incoming ambassadors; and distributing honours, decorations, and medals. Per the tenets of responsible government
, the governor general acts almost always (except on the matter of honours) on the advice of the prime minister.

The office began in the 17th century, when the French Crown appointed governors of the

British North America Act, 1867.[4]

Although the post initially still represented the

Statute of Westminster, 1931, and the establishment of a separate and uniquely Canadian monarchy, the governor general became the direct personal representative of the independently Canadian sovereign (the monarch in his Canadian council).[5][6][7][8] Throughout this process of gradually increasing Canadian independence, the role of governor general took on additional responsibilities, such as acting as Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian militia in the monarch's stead,[9][10] and, in 1927, the first official international visit by a governor general was made.[11][12] In 1947, King George VI issued letters patent allowing the viceroy to exercise almost all powers on behalf of the monarch. As a matter of law, however, the governor general is not in the same constitutional position as the sovereign;[13] the office itself does not independently possess any powers of the royal prerogative. Any constitutional amendment that affects the Crown, including the office of governor general, requires the unanimous consent of each provincial legislative assembly as well as the Senate and House of Commons of Canada
.

Appointment

Letters Patent 1947
First page of the proclamation of the Letters Patent, 1947, as published in the Canada Gazette

The position of governor general is mandated by both the

Canadian prime minister, the Canadian monarch appoints the governor general by commission, prepared in Canada, and issued under the Great Seal of Canada and with the royal sign-manual.[15] (Until the appointment of Vincent Massey in 1952, the royal commission was authorized by the monarch's signature and signet.[15]) That individual is, from then until being sworn in, referred to as the governor general-designate.[21]

Besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing-in of a governor general-designate.[18] Though there may therefore be variations to the following, the appointee will usually travel to Ottawa, there receiving an official welcome and taking up residence at 7 Rideau Gate,[18][22] and will begin preparations for their upcoming role, meeting with various high-level officials to ensure a smooth transition between governors general. The sovereign will also hold an audience with the appointee and will at that time induct both the governor general-designate and their spouse into the Order of Canada as Companions, as well as appointing the former as a Commander of both the Order of Military Merit and the Order of Merit of the Police Forces (should either person not have already received either of those honours).[18]

The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years; though, this is only a developed convention and has been criticized as too short for an office meant to represent a Crown and sovereign meant to embody continuity.[23] The governor general serves "at His Majesty's pleasure" (or the royal pleasure),[24] meaning the prime minister may recommend to the King that the viceroy remain in his service for a longer period of time; some governors general have been in office for more than seven years.[n 2] No additional formalities are necessary for such an "extension"; the governor general carries on until death,[n 3] resignation,[n 4] or the appointment of his or her successor.[25] Only once, with the Earl Alexander of Tunis, has a royal proclamation been issued to end a governor general's incumbency.[n 5]

Should a governor general die, resign, or leave the country for longer than one month, the

chief justice of Canada (or, if that position is vacant or unavailable, the senior puisne justice of the Supreme Court) serves as the administrator of the government of Canada and exercises all powers of the governor general.[n 6]

Selection

In a speech on the subject of

secretary of state for the colonies for approval by the prime minister. After that, a policy of consulting the Canadian Cabinet was established; though, this process was not always followed.[27]

The

Statute of Westminster, 1931
.

How many names the prime minister puts forward to the sovereign has varied. Richard Bennett suggested a number of names in an informal letter to King George V in 1930, all of which the King approved, leading Bennett to pick the Earl of Bessborough. Mackenzie King in 1945 gave three names to King George VI, who chose Harold Alexander (later the Viscount Alexander of Tunis). Mackenzie King then made the formal recommendation to the King, which was accepted. Louis St. Laurent, however, gave only one name—Massey's—to George VI.[15] There is typically informal consultation between the prime minister and sovereign, either directly or via the incumbent governor general, on the appointment of the next viceroy before the prime minister gives his official advice to the monarch.[15]

(Left to right) T.A. Crerar, King George VI, Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, Queen Elizabeth, and Governor General the Lord Tweedsmuir at the Château Laurier hotel in Ottawa, 1939. Mackenzie King was the only leader of the opposition to ever be involved in the appointment of a governor general, in 1935 deciding with then-Prime Minister Richard Bennett to choose Tweedsmuir.

The only time the leader of the opposition was consulted on the choice of name to put forward to the monarch for appointment as viceroy was when the Lord Tweedsmuir's predecessor, Bessborough, wished to resign as governor general coincidentally just ahead of Parliament reaching the end of its maximum five year life in July 1935, after which an election was required. Mackenzie King, at the time leader of the opposition, expected to win a majority in the upcoming election and stated he would not accept a governor general recommended by then-Prime Minister Bennett, which was a constitutionally unjustifiable position for Mackenzie King to take. King George V became concerned and instructed Bessborough to either remain in office until after the election or bring Bennett and Mackenzie King together to agree on a nominee for his replacement. The Governor General consulted with the Prime Minister and Leader of the Opposition and settled on Tweedsmuir.[28]

Until 1952, all governors general were members of the British aristocracy or former British military officers, diplomats, or politicians raised to the

Paris Peace Conference, Canadian prime minister Sir Robert Borden, consulted with South African prime minister Louis Botha, and the two agreed that the viceregal appointees should be long-term residents of their respective dominions.[30] Calls for just such an individual to be made viceroy came again in the late 1930s,[31] but, it was not until Massey's appointment by King George VI in 1952 that the position was filled by a Canadian-born individual. The Prime Minister at the time, Louis St. Laurent, wrote in a letter to the media, "[i]t seems to me no one of the King's subjects, wherever he resides, should be considered unworthy to represent the King, provided he has the personal qualifications and a position in the community which are consonant with the dignity and responsibility of that office."[27] Massey stated of this, "a Canadian [as governor general] makes it far easier to look on the Crown as our own and on the Sovereign as Queen of Canada."[32]

This practice continued until 1999, when Queen Elizabeth II commissioned as her representative

anglophone Canadians was instituted with the appointment of Vanier, a francophone who succeeded the anglophone Massey. All persons whose names are put forward to the King for approval must first undergo background checks by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Canadian Security Intelligence Service.[33][34]

Vincent Massey (left), the first Canadian-born viceroy since Confederation

Although required by the tenets of

Asian-Canadian and the second woman, following on Jeanne Sauvé. The third woman to hold this position was also the first Caribbean-Canadian governor general, Michaëlle Jean
.

There have been, from time to time, proposals put forward for modifications to the selection process. Citizens for a Canadian Republic has advocated the election of the nominee to the sovereign, either by popular or parliamentary vote;[36] a proposal echoed by Clarkson, who called for the prime minister's choice to not only be vetted by a parliamentary committee,[37][38] but, also submit to a televised quiz on Canadiana.[39] Constitutional scholars, editorial boards, and the Monarchist League of Canada have argued against any such constitutional tinkering with the viceregal appointment process, stating that the position being "not elected is an asset, not a handicap", and that an election would politicize the office, thereby undermining the impartiality necessary to the proper functioning of the governor general.[40][41] Retired University of Ottawa professor John E. Trent proposed the governor general be head of state and selected by the Officers of the Order of Canada,[42] something Chris Selley argued would politicize both the head of state and the Order of Canada, itself.[43] In 2021, Grand Chief Vernon Watchmaker and Chief Germaine Anderson of the Six Nations of the Grand River wrote to Queen Elizabeth II, suggesting that the federal Cabinet consult treaty nations before the appointment of a new governor general, stating, "we are partners with the Crown."[44]

A new approach was used in 2010 for the selection of

lieutenant governors and territorial commissioners (though, the latter are not personal representatives of the monarch).[51] However, the next ministry, headed by Justin Trudeau, disbanded the committee in 2017,[52] before he recommended Payette as Johnston's successor that year.[53] Following Payette's resignation, Trudeau formed the Advisory Group on the Selection of the Next Governor General,[27] which selected Mary Simon for appointment as vicereine.[54]

Swearing-in ceremony

Michaëlle Jean swearing the oaths of office as administered by Puisne Justice Michel Bastarache, 27 September 2005

The swearing-in ceremony begins with the arrival at 7 Rideau Gate of one of the

Vice Regal Salute" is played by the Central Band of the Canadian Armed Forces, and a 21-gun salute is conducted by the Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery. The governor general is seated on the throne while a prayer is read, and then receives the Great Seal of Canada (which is passed to the registrar general for protection),[55] as well as the chains of both the chancellor of the Order of Canada and of the Order of Military Merit.[56] The governor general then gives a speech, outlining causes they will champion during their time as viceroy.[18]

Role

Further information: Monarchy of Canada § International and domestic aspects
Governor General Adrienne Clarkson (right) meets with Russian President Vladimir Putin (left) in the governor general's study of Rideau Hall, 18 December 2000

If, and because your Governor-General is in the service of the Crown, he is, therefore ... in the service of Canada ... [A]loof though he be from actual executive responsibility, his attitude must be that of ceaseless and watchful readiness to take part ... in the fostering of every influence that will sweeten and elevate public life; to ... join in making known the resources and developments of the country; to vindicate, if required, the rights of the people and the ordinariness and Constitution, and lastly, to promote by all means in his power, without reference to class or creed, every movement and every institution calculated to forward the social, moral, and religious welfare of the inhabitants of the Dominion.[57]

Governor General the Marquess of Aberdeen, 1893

Canada shares the person of the sovereign equally with 14 other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations and that individual, in the monarch's capacity as the Canadian sovereign, has 10 other legal personas within the Canadian federation. As the sovereign works and resides in the United Kingdom, the governor general's primary task is to perform federal constitutional duties on behalf of the monarch.[58][59] As such, the governor general carries on "the government of Canada on behalf and in the name of the sovereign".[60]

The governor general acts within the principles of

nonpartisan safeguard against the abuse of power.[61][62][63] For the most part, however, the powers of the Crown are exercised on a day-to-day basis by elected and appointed individuals, leaving the governor general to perform the various ceremonial duties the sovereign otherwise carries out when in the country; at such a moment, the governor general removes him or herself from public,[n 7] though the presence of the monarch does not affect the governor general's ability to perform governmental roles.[65][66]

Past governor general John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, said of the job, "it is no easy thing to be a governor general of Canada. You must have the patience of a saint, the smile of a cherub, the generosity of an Indian prince, and the back of a camel",[67] and the Earl of Dufferin stated that the governor general is "a representative of all that is august, stable, and sedate in the government, the history and the traditions of the country; incapable of partizanship and lifted far above the atmosphere of faction; without adherents to reward or opponents to oust from office; docile to the suggestions of his Ministers and, yet, securing to the people the certainty of being able to get rid of an administration or parliament the moment either had forfeited their confidence."[68]

Constitutional role

Further information: Monarchy of Canada § Federal constitutional role

All

judicial power in and over Canada is vested in the monarch.[69][70] The governor general is permitted to exercise most of this power, including the royal prerogative, in the sovereign's name; some as outlined in the Constitution Act, 1867, and some through various letters patent issued over the decades, particularly those from 1947 that constitute the Office of Governor General of Canada.[71] The 1947 letters patent state, "and We do hereby authorize and empower Our Governor General, with the advice of Our Privy Council for Canada or of any members thereof or individually, as the case requires, to exercise all powers and authorities lawfully belonging to Us in respect of Canada."[72] The office itself does not, however, independently possess any powers of the royal prerogative, only exercising the Crown's powers with its permission; a fact the Constitution Act, 1867, left unchanged.[73] Among other duties, the monarch retains the sole right to appoint the governor general.[7] It is also stipulated that the governor general may appoint deputies—usually Supreme Court justices and the secretary to the governor general—who can perform some of the viceroy's constitutional duties in the governor general's absence,[74] and the chief justice of the Supreme Court (or a puisne justice in the chief justice's absence) will act as the administrator of the government upon the death or removal, as well as the incapacitation, or absence of the governor general for more than one month.[75]

Queen's Privy Council for Canada by Governor General David Johnston (centre) at Rideau Hall
, 25 September 2017

The governor general is required by the Constitution Act, 1867, to appoint for life persons to the

orders in council. The governor-in-Council is also specifically tasked by the Constitution Act, 1867, to appoint in the monarch's name, the lieutenant governors of the provinces,[78] senators,[79] the speaker of the Senate,[80] superior, district, and county court judges in each province, except those of the Courts of Probate in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick,[81] and high commissioners and ambassadors.[82] The advice given by the Cabinet is, in order to ensure the stability of government, by political convention typically binding. The governor general has mainly only the right to advise, encourage, and warn; to offer valued counsel to the prime minister.[83][84]

Both the King and his viceroy, however, may in exceptional circumstances invoke the

reserve powers, which remain the Crown's final check against a ministry's abuse of power.[n 8][85] The reserve power of dismissal has never been used in Canada, although other reserve powers have been employed to force the prime minister to resign on two occasions: In 1896, Prime Minister Charles Tupper refused to step down after his party failed to win a majority in the House of Commons during that year's election, leading Governor General the Earl of Aberdeen to no longer recognize Tupper as prime minister and disapprove of several appointments Tupper had recommended. In 1925, the King–Byng affair took place, in which Prime Minister Mackenzie King, facing a non-confidence motion in the House of Commons, advised Governor General the Viscount Byng of Vimy to dissolve
the new parliament, but Byng refused.

Peter Hogg, a constitutional scholar, has opined that "a system of responsible government cannot work without a formal head of state who is possessed of certain reserve powers." Further, Eugene Forsey stated "the reserve power is indeed, under our Constitution, an absolutely essential safeguard of democracy. It takes the place of the legal and judicial safeguards provided in the United States by written Constitutions, enforceable in the courts."

Within the Dominions, until the 1920s, most reserve powers were exercised by a governor-general on the advice of either the local or the British Cabinet, with the latter taking precedence. After the Imperial Conference of 1926 produced the Balfour Declaration, formally establishing the autonomy and equal status of Commonwealth governments, governors general ceased to be advised in any way by British ministers.

It was decided at the same Imperial Conference that the governor general "should be kept as fully informed as His Majesty the King in Great Britain of Cabinet business and public affairs."[86] How frequently governors general and their prime ministers conversed has varied;[82] some prime ministers have valued their meetings with the viceroy at the time.[n 9] However, the pracice is usually informal[82] and the prime minister will typically schedule a telephone call to request the governor general perform a significant task.[89][88] The governor general regularly receives the minutes from Cabinet meetings and any documents referred to in those minutes.[90]

The Lord Tweedsmuir gives the Throne Speech at the opening of the third session of the 18th Canadian Parliament, 27 January 1938

The governor general also summons Parliament, reads the speech from the throne, and prorogues and dissolves Parliament. The governor general grants royal assent in the King's name; legally, the governor general has three options: grant royal assent (making the bill a law), withhold royal assent (vetoing the bill), or reserve the bill for the signification of the king's pleasure (allowing the sovereign to personally grant or withhold assent).[91] If the governor general withholds the King's assent, the sovereign may within two years disallow the bill, thereby annulling the law in question. No governor general has denied royal assent to a bill. Provincial viceroys, however, are able to reserve royal assent to provincial bills for the governor general, which was last invoked in 1961 by the Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan.[92]

Ceremonial role

Further information: Monarchy of Canada § Cultural role

With most constitutional functions lent to Cabinet, the governor general acts in a primarily ceremonial fashion. The governor general will host members of

Canada's royal family, as well as foreign royalty and heads of state, and will represent the King and country abroad on state visits to other nations,[93][85] though the monarch's permission is necessary, via the prime minister, for the viceroy to leave Canada.[94] Also as part of international relations, the governor general issues letters of credence and of recall for Canadian ambassadors and high commissioners
and receives the same from foreign ambassadors and other Commonwealth countries' high commissioners appointed to Canada.

Governor General David Johnston greeting a crowd during Canada Day celebrations in Ottawa, July 2016

The governor general is also tasked with fostering national unity and pride.

awards associated with private organizations, some of which are named for past governors general.[93]
During a federal election, the governor general will curtail these public duties, so as not to appear as though they are involving themselves in political affairs.

Although the constitution of Canada states that the "Command-in-Chief of the Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue and be vested in the Queen,"

Colonel-in-Chief, which is held by the King. Since 1910, the governor general was also always made the chief scout for Canada, which was renamed Chief Scout of Canada after 1946 and again in 2011 as Patron Scout.[98]

Residences and household

Quebec City, Quebec.[101] A governor general's wife
is known as the chatelaine of Rideau Hall, though there is no equivalent term for a governor general's husband.

Rideau Hall, the primary residence of the governor general
Secondary residence at the Citadelle of Quebec

The viceregal household aids the governor general in the execution of the royal constitutional and ceremonial duties and is managed by the secretary to the governor general.[102] The Chancellery of Honours depends from the King and is thus also located at Rideau Hall and administered by the governor general. As such, the viceroy's secretary ex officio holds the position of Herald Chancellor of Canada,[103] overseeing the Canadian Heraldic Authority—the mechanism of the Canadian honours system by which armorial bearings are granted to Canadians by the governor general in the name of the sovereign.[103] These organized offices and support systems include aides-de-camp, press officers, financial managers,[102] speech writers, trip organizers, event planners, protocol officers, chefs and other kitchen employees, waiters, and various cleaning staff, as well as visitors' centre staff and tour guides at both official residences. In this official and bureaucratic capacity, the entire household is often referred to as Government House[104] and its departments are funded through the normal federal budgetary process,[105] as is the governor general's salary of CAD$288,900,[106] which has been taxed since 2013.[107][108] Additional costs are incurred from separate ministries and organizations such as the National Capital Commission, the Department of National Defence, and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[109]

Bombardier Challenger 600
VIP jets to transport the governor general to locations within and outside of Canada.

Symbols and protocol

As the personal representative of the monarch, the governor general follows only the sovereign in the

style His or Her Excellency and the governor general is granted the additional honorific of the Right Honourable for their time in office and for life afterwards.[111][112][113]

Michaëlle Jean wearing the insignia of the Order of Canada and Order of Military Merit along with the Canadian Forces' Decoration

Prior to 1952, all governors general of Canada were members of the peerage or heir apparent to a peerage. Typically, individuals appointed as federal viceroy were already a peer, either by inheriting the title, such as the Duke of Devonshire, or by prior elevation by the sovereign in their own right, as was the case with the Earl Alexander of Tunis. None were life peers, the Life Peerages Act 1958 postdating the beginning of the tradition of appointing Canadian citizens as governor general. John Buchan was, in preparation for his appointment as governor general, made the Baron Tweedsmuir of Elsfield in the County of Oxford by King George V, six months before Buchan was sworn in as viceroy. The leader of His Majesty's Loyal Opposition at the time, Mackenzie King, felt Buchan should serve as governor general as a commoner.[114] However, George V insisted he be represented by a peer. With the appointment of Massey as governor general in 1952, governors general ceased to be members of the peerage; successive prime ministers since that date have held to the non-binding and defeated (in 1934) principles of the 1919 Nickle Resolution.

Under the orders' constitutions, the governor general serves as Chancellor and Principal Companion of the

Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem.[118] As acting commander-in-chief, the governor general is further routinely granted the Canadian Forces' Decoration by the chief of the Defence Staff on behalf of the monarch. All of these honours are retained following an incumbent's departure from office, with the individual remaining in the highest categories of the orders, and they may also be further distinguished with induction into other orders or the receipt of other awards.[n 10]

The

King's personal Canadian standard.[122] When the governor general undertakes a state visit, however, the national flag is generally employed to mark governor general's presence.[121] This flag is also, along with all flags on Canadian Forces property, flown at half-mast upon the death of an incumbent or former governor general.[123]

flag of the governor general
was adopted in 1981.

The

Royal Arms of Canada is employed as the badge of the governor general, appearing on the viceroy's flag and on other objects associated with the person or the office. This is the fourth such incarnation of the governor general's mark since confederation.[124]

1901 1921 1931 1953 1981

History

Further information:
List of Governors General of Canada

French and British colonies

King Louis XIV took control of the colony and appointed Augustin de Saffray de Mésy as the first governor general in 1663,[128]
after whom 12 more people served in the post.

Statue of Louis de Buade de Frontenac, the third and sixth Governor General of New France, at the Quebec Parliament Building.

With the signing of the

Province of Quebec.[130] Nova Scotia and New Brunswick remained completely separate colonies, each with their own governor, until the cabinet of William Pitt adopted in the 1780s the idea that they, along with Quebec and Prince Edward Island, should have as their respective governors a single individual styled as governor-in-chief. The post was created in 1786, with the Lord Dorchester as its first occupant. However, the governor-in-chief directly governed only Quebec. It was not until the splitting in 1791 of the Province of Quebec, to accommodate the influx of United Empire Loyalists fleeing the American revolutionary war, that the king's representative, with a change in title to Governor General, directly governed Lower Canada
, while the other three colonies were each administered by a lieutenant governor in his stead.

Following the 1783 recognition of the independence of the 13 continental colonies that became the United States of America and the transfer of East Florida and West Florida to Spain, the remaining British colonies of North America, including Bermuda, were partly integrated as British North America. During the War of 1812, Lieutenant-General Sir George Prevost was appointed as "Captain-General and Governor-in-Chief in and Over the Provinces of Upper-Canada, Lower-Canada, Nova-Scotia, and New-Brunswick, and Their Several Dependencies, Vice-Admiral of the Same, Lieutenant-General and Commander of all His Majesty's Forces in the Said Provinces of Lower Canada and Upper-Canada, Nova-Scotia, and New-Brunswick, and Their Several Dependencies, and in the Islands of Newfoundland, Prince Edward, Cape Breton, and the Bermudas, &c. &c. &c."[131]

Responsible government

Political organization of the Province of Canada, after the introduction of responsible government under the Union Act, 1848

The

Governor-General of the Province of Canada and Lieutenant-Governor of Canada East the Earl of Elgin granted Royal Assent to the Rebellion Losses Bill, despite his personal misgivings towards the legislation.[134]

This arrangement continued after the reunification in 1840 of Upper and Lower Canada into the

Canadian high commissioner to the United Kingdom, created in 1880, began to take over the governor general's role as a link between the Canadian and British governments, leaving the viceroy increasingly as a personal representative of the monarch.[137] As such, the governor general had to retain a sense of political neutrality; a skill that was put to the test when John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, disagreed with his Canadian prime minister, Macdonald, over the dismissal of Lieutenant Governor of Quebec Luc Letellier de St-Just. On the advice of the colonial secretary, and to avoid conflict with the Canadian Cabinet, Campbell did eventually concede and released St-Just from duty.[138] The governor general was then in May 1891 called upon to resolve the Dominion's first cabinet crisis, wherein Macdonald died, leaving the Lord Stanley of Preston
to select a new prime minister.

Valcartier Camp
, 1914

As early as 1880, the viceregal family and court attracted minor ridicule from the Queen's subjects: in July of that year, someone under the

King George V), to take up the post of governor general, there was a "feeble undercurrent of criticism" centring on worries about a rigid court at Rideau Hall; worries that turned out to be unfounded as the royal couple was actually more relaxed than their predecessors.[140]

Emerging nationality to an independent kingdom

official visit to Washington, D.C.
as the governor general of Canada.

During the

Archbishop of Montreal Paul Bruchési, Duncan Campbell Scott, Vilhjalmur Stefansson, and Stephen Leacock, made efforts to conciliate Quebec, though he had little real success.[142]

Canada's national sentiment had gained fortitude through the country's sacrifices on the battlefields of the First World War and, by war's end, the interference of the British government in Canadian affairs was causing ever-increasing discontent amongst Canadian officials;

King-Byng Affair
: another catalyst for change in the relationship between Canada—indeed, all the dominions—and the United Kingdom, and thus the purpose of the governor general.

The Viscount Byng of Vimy, who was involved in the King–Byng affair, a catalyst for change over the role of the governor general in the British Empire

In 1926, Prime Minister Mackenzie King, facing a

High Commissioner to Canada thus effectively ending the governor general's diplomatic role as the British government's envoy.[149]

The governor general thus became solely the representative of the monarch within Canadian jurisdiction, ceasing completely to be an agent of the British Cabinet,[n 16][8][151] and as such would be appointed only on the advice of his Canadian prime minister.[152] The Canadian Cabinet's first recommendation under this new system was still, however, a British subject born outside of Canada, John Buchan (later the Lord Tweedsmuir).

Tweedsmuir's birthplace aside, though, the professional author took further than any of his predecessors the idea of a distinct Canadian identity,

Montreal Gazette dubbed as "disloyal".[156] During Tweedsmuir's time as viceroy, which started in 1935, calls began to emerge for a Canadian-born individual to be appointed as governor general; but Tweedsmuir died suddenly in office in 1940, while Canada was in the midst of the Second World War, and Mackenzie King did not feel it was the right time to search for a suitable Canadian.[157]
The Earl of Athlone was instead appointed by King George VI, Athlone's nephew, to be his viceroy for the duration of the war.

Quebec nationalism and constitutional patriation

Georges Vanier, the 19th governor general of Canada. The convention of alternating between francophones and anglophones began with Vanier's appointment.

It was in 1952, a mere five days before King George VI's death, that Massey became the first Canadian-born person to be appointed as a governor general in Canada since

the Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnal was made Governor General of New France on 1 January 1755, as well as the first not to be elevated to the peerage since Sir Edmund Walker Head in 1854. There was some trepidation about this departure from tradition and Massey was intended to be a compromise: he was known to embody loyalty, dignity, and formality, as expected from a viceroy.[158]

As his viceregal tenure neared an end, it was thought that Massey, an

la Fête St-Jean-Baptiste in Montreal in 1964, a group of separatists held placards reading "Vanier vendu" ("Vanier sold out") and "Vanier fou de la Reine" ("Vanier Queen's jester").[160]

In light of this regional nationalism and a resultant change in attitudes towards Canadian identity, images and the role of the monarchy were cautiously downplayed, and Vanier's successor, Michener, was the last viceroy to practice many of the office's ancient traditions, such as the wearing of

state visits.[161] He presided over Canada's centennial celebrations and the coincidental Expo 67, to which French president Charles de Gaulle was invited. Michener was with de Gaulle when he made his infamous "Vive le Québec libre" speech in Montreal and was cheered wildly by the gathered crowd while they booed and jeered Michener.[162] With the additional recognition of the monarchy as a Canadian institution,[163][164] the establishment of a distinct Canadian honours system, an increase of state visits coming with Canada's growing role on the world stage, and the more prevalent use of television
to visually broadcast ceremonial state affairs, the governor general became more publicly active in national life.

Jeanne Sauvé (left), Canada's first female governor general, with a Guardsman (private) of the Canadian Grenadier Guards of Montreal

The Cabinet in June 1978 proposed the constitutional amendment Bill C-60, that, amongst other changes, vested executive authority directly in the governor general and renamed the position as First Canadian,[165][166][167] but the proposal was thwarted by the provincial premiers.[168][169][170] When the constitution was patriated four years later, the new amending formula for the documents outlined that any changes to the Crown, including the Office of the Governor General, would require the consent of all the provincial legislatures plus the federal parliament.[171] By 1984, Canada's first female governor general, Sauvé, was appointed. While it was she who created the Canadian Heraldic Authority, as permitted by letters patent from Queen Elizabeth II, and who championed youth and world peace, Sauvé proved to be a controversial vicereine, closing to the public the grounds of the Queen's residence and self-aggrandizingly breaching protocol on a number of occasions.[167][172][173]

Withering and renaissance

Sarah, Duchess of York, said in 2009 that sometime during her marriage to Prince Andrew, Duke of York, her husband was offered the position of governor general of Canada, and she speculated in hindsight that their agreement to refuse the commission may have been a contributing factor in their eventual break-up.[174] Instead, Sauvé's tenure as governor general was book-ended by a series of appointments—Edward Schreyer, Ray Hnatyshyn, and Roméo LeBlanc—that have been generally regarded as mere patronage postings for former politicians and friends of the incumbent prime minister at the time,[n 17][95][167] and despite the duties they carried out, their combined time in the viceregal office is generally viewed as unremarkable at best, and damaging to the office at worst.[95][167][100][175][176] As David Smith described it: "Notwithstanding the personal qualities of the appointees, which have often been extraordinary, the Canadian governor general has become a hermetic head of state—ignored by press, politicians and public."[177] It was theorized by Peter Boyce that this was due, in part, to widespread misunderstanding about the governor general's role coupled with a lack of public presence compared to the media coverage dedicated to the increasingly presidentialized prime minister.[95]

Governor General Adrienne Clarkson (right) toasts Russian president Vladimir Putin in the ballroom of Rideau Hall, 18 December 2000

It was with the Queen's appointment of Clarkson, on the advice of then Prime Minister

Jack Granatstein to have caused "a fury" with the Queen on one occasion in 2004.[191] This attitude was not unique to Clarkson, though; it had been observed that, for some decades, staff at Rideau Hall and various government departments in Ottawa had been pushing to present the governor general as head of state,[192] part of a wider Liberal policy on the monarchy that had been in effect at least since the proposed constitutional changes in the 1970s,[167] if not the 1964 Truncheon Saturday riot in Quebec City.[190] Indeed, international observers opined that the viceroys had been, over the years, making deliberate attempts to distance themselves from the sovereign, for fear of being too closely associated with any "Britishness" the monarch embodied.[95]

As the representative of Canada's head of state, the governor general, Michaëlle Jean, welcomes US President Barack Obama to Canada, 19 February 2009

Prime Minister Paul Martin followed Chrétien's example and, for Clarkson's successor, put forward to the Queen the name of Michaëlle Jean, who was, like Clarkson, a woman, a refugee, a member of a visible minority, a CBC career journalist, and married to an intellectual husband who worked in the arts.[193] Her appointment initially sparked accusations that she was a supporter of Quebec sovereignty, and it was observed that she had on a few occasions trodden into political matters,[194][195][196] as well as continuing to foster the notion that the governor general had replaced the Queen as head of state, thereby "unbalancing ... the federalist symmetry".[197] But Jean ultimately won plaudits,[176] particularly for her solidarity with the Canadian Forces and the Indigenous peoples in Canada, as well as her role in the parliamentary dispute that took place between December 2008 and January 2009.[198][199][200]

With the appointment of academic David Johnston, former principal of McGill University and subsequently president of the University of Waterloo, there was a signalled emphasis for the governor general to vigorously promote learning and innovation. Johnston stated in his inaugural address: "[We want to be] a society that innovates, embraces its talent and uses the knowledge of each of its citizens to improve the human condition for all."[201] There was also a recognition of Johnston's expertise in constitutional law, following the controversial prorogations of Parliament in 2008 and 2009, which initiated some debate about the governor general's role as the representative of Canada's head of state.[202]

In late 2021, the Governor General's office confirmed that its internal office network was breached as part of a "sophisticated cyber incident".[203][204][205][206] Officials were unable to determine the extent of the information that was accessed.[206] Former security officials speculated that another country may be responsible.[204][205] The Canadian Centre for Cyber Security, a branch of the Communications Security Establishment, is investigating the incident.[206]

Activities post-retirement

Retired governors general usually either withdraw from public life or go on to hold other public offices. Edward Schreyer, for instance, was appointed

Viceroy of India
.

An outgoing governor general may leave

an eponymous award as a legacy, such as the Stanley Cup, the Clarkson Cup, the Vanier Cup, or the Grey Cup
. They may found an institution, as Vanier did with the Vanier Institute of the Family and Clarkson with the Institute for Canadian Citizenship. Three former governors general have released memoirs: the Lord Tweedsmuir (Memory Hold-the-Door), Massey (What's Past is Prologue), and Clarkson (Heart Matters).

As of 2021, former governors general are entitled to a lifetime pension of nearly $150,000 and also to claim an additional $206,000 in expenses each year.[208]

Canadian institutions established by governors general
Institution Founded by
Royal Society of Canada John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne
Canada's first anti-tuberculosis association The Earl of Minto
The Battlefields Park The Earl Grey
King George V Silver Jubilee Cancer Fund for Canada[209] The Earl of Bessborough
Vanier Institute of the Family Georges Vanier[210]
Sauvé Foundation
 Jeanne Sauvé
Governor General Ramon John Hnatyshyn Education Fund Ray Hnatyshyn[211][212]
International Council for Canadian Studies
The Hnatyshyn Foundation
Institute for Canadian Citizenship Adrienne Clarkson
Michaëlle Jean Foundation Michaëlle Jean
Rideau Hall Foundation David Johnston[213]

Spelling of the title

The letters patent constituting the office and official publications of the

Commonwealth realms, which do include a hyphen.[14][214] As governor is the noun, the title is pluralized
as governors general, rather than governor generals.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ When the position is held by a male, the French title is Gouverneur général du Canada.
  2. ^ Georges Vanier served as governor general between 15 September 1959 and 5 March 1967 and Roland Michener served for just under seven years, from 17 April 1967 to 14 January 1974.
  3. Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital on 11 February 1940 and Georges Vanier died at Rideau Hall
    on 5 March 1967.
  4. ^ Roméo LeBlanc resigned the viceregal post in 1999 and Julie Payette resigned in 2021.
  5. ^ As Alexander was to be appointed to the British Cabinet and the announcement made while he was still in Canada, the Canadian Cabinet felt it necessary to end Alexander's service as viceroy immediately, while sparing him the indignity of resignation.[25]
  6. Lyman Poore Duff in 1940 and Chief Justice Robert Taschereau
    in 1967.
  7. ^ Governor General the Lord Tweedsmuir said of King George VI being in the Senate in 1939 to grant Royal Assent to bills: "[When the King of Canada is present] I cease to exist as Viceroy, and retain only a shadowy legal existence as Governor General in Council."[64]
  8. ^ See Note 2 at King's Privy Council for Canada.
  9. ^ Robert Borden said, "it would be an absolute mistake to regard the governor general as a mere figurehead, a mere rubber stamp. During nine years of premiership, I had the opportunity of realizing how helpful may be the advice and counsel of a governor general in matters of delicacy and difficulty".[87]
  10. ^ Some seven years after he left office, the Earl Alexander of Tunis was appointed as a Member of the Order of Merit. Similarly, Massey was awarded the Royal Victorian Chain by Queen Elizabeth II approximately six months after leaving the viceregal post and was in 1967 invested into the Order of Canada.[119] ichener was presented with the Royal Victorian Chain a few months before he retired as governor general.
  11. ^ Kevin MacLeod, in his book A Crown of Maples, pegs the start date of Champlain's governorship at 1627,[3] whereas the official website of the Governor General of Canada puts it at 1608.[127]
  12. Langevin Block in the 1970s, and are now preserved as a tourist attraction along with other historic offices in the East Block.[6]
  13. ^ The appointment in 1916 of the Duke of Devonshire as governor general caused political problems, as Canadian prime minister Robert Borden had, counter to established common practice, not been consulted on the matter by his British counterpart, H. H. Asquith.[143]
  14. ^ During the Great Depression, the Earl of Bessborough voluntarily cut his salary by ten percent as a sign of his solidarity with the Canadian people.[145]
  15. ^ Governors general had been venturing to Washington to meet informally with the President of the United States since the time of the Viscount Monck.
  16. ^ The ministers in attendance at the Imperial Conference agreed that: "In our opinion it is an essential consequence of the equality of status existing among the members of the British Commonwealth of Nations that the Governor General of a Dominion is the representative of the Crown, holding in all essential respects the same position in relation to the administration of public affairs in the Dominion as is held by His Majesty the King in Great Britain, and that he is not the representative or agent of His Majesty's Government in Great Britain or of any Department of that Government."[150]
  17. ^ LeBlanc's strong ties to the Liberal Party led other party leaders to protest his appointment by boycotting his installation ceremony.[175]
  18. The Marquess of Lansdowne and the Duke of Devonshire both also served in the British Cabinet following their viceregal careers, and Lansdowne went on to serve as leader of the Conservative Party
    in the House of Lords for over a decade.

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Order of precedence
Preceded byas King of Canada Governor General of Canada
Canadian order of precedence (ceremonial) 		Succeeded byas Prime Minister of Canada
Political offices
Preceded by
Governor General of the Province of Canada
 Governor General of Canada
1867 – present 		Current
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