Hazards of outdoor recreation

Outdoor recreation, such as hiking, camping, canoeing, cycling, or skiing, entails risks, even if participants do not recklessly place themselves in harm's way. In some circumstances, such as being in remote locations or in extreme weather conditions, even a minor accident may create a dangerous situation that requires survival skills. However, with correct precautions, even fairly adventurous outdoor recreation can be enjoyable and safe.

General safety measures

Every hazard has its own safety measure, and every ailment a particular remedy. A standard precaution for all back country activities is carrying the "

The common practice of traveling in a group improves safety in all regards. If one person is injured, group members can administer first aid or seek help. A group can avoid poor decisions that a lone traveler might make. If an emergency occurs, a group can pool its muscle power, brain power, and body heat.

Another precaution is informing people outside of the group of the itinerary and expected return time (expected hiking time can be estimated using

Blizzards, flash floods, fog, dust or sandstorms, tornadoes, and other meteorological events may or may not be predictable, and may require immediate response for survival.^[2] Lightning is a frequent and serious threat in many regions.^[3]: 155

Hazardous terrain

• On wet rocks or logs.
• When crossing streams, rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water, which can be dangerous due to poor visibility, uneven surfaces, smooth and algae or moss-covered rocks, and strong currents. The tops of waterfalls are especially dangerous because of fast moving water and smooth, slanted rocks. Rubber soles grip poorly on slime, compared to felt soles, crampons, or hob-nailed boots. Precautions include being aware of the danger, using hiking poles, loosening packs straps to lower gravity and in case of becoming submerged, and crossing with other people linked arm to arm or using a rope.
• Because of loose material. Loose gravel or scree on top of smooth rock acts like ball bearings. Precautions include spotting the situation ahead, keeping knees bent and weight forward, using hiking sticks, and brushing aside the gravel where possible.
• Ice

When travelling over

When walking beaches or crossing estuaries, it is essential to be aware of the tides.

Hazardous bystanders

Individuals encountered in the outdoors may not always be friendly and in some cases may pose a danger to outdoor recreationalists. These can take the case of robberies, sexual assault, or other attacks.^{[citation needed]}

Losing the way

Travelers may become lost, either if a group cannot find its way or if an individual becomes separated from the party and cannot find it again. Lost hikers who cannot find their way to their destination on time may run out of food and water, or experience a change in weather. The absence of clearly marked trails increases the risk of losing one's way.^[9]

If a group splits up into several subgroups moving at different speeds, one of the subgroups may take a wrong turn at a trail junction. A common procedure to avoid this is for the leaders to stop at junctions and wait for the others. Keeping the group together is important in the wilderness, especially when visibility is blocked due to weather, rocks, or trees.^[9]

Carrying a

Without a distant focal point, such as a mountain top, or the sun or moon, people who are lost can sometimes wander in circles.^[10]

Specific accidents and ailments

Metabolic imbalances

Metabolic imbalances can affect general functioning and lead to other injuries.

• Potability of backcountry water).^[11]
• Sweating removes not only water, but also salt. This may result in a deficiency of sodium (hyponatremia). Eating salty snacks together with drinking water helps to avoid this problem.^[11]
• If deprived of food for several days, travelers may become malnourished. Malnutrition takes several weeks to kill a person, but because it impairs judgment, it can cause problems much sooner. Low blood sugar may have a similar effect, especially for those with diabetes. Carrying extra food will minimize risk to the hiker.
• Hypothermia is a potentially fatal drop in core body temperature. It occurs most easily in cold weather and when wet. Wet or damp clothing (due to rain, sweat, stream crossings, etc.) can bring it on even in relatively warm air, particularly at high elevation, windy conditions, or at low humidity. Even if hypothermia does not kill the victim directly it causes confusion, irrationality and impaired judgment, increasing the risk of other injuries.^{[12]: 281–283} Sufficient clothing helps prevent hypothermia, but some materials (especially cotton) are discouraged because they absorb and hold water.
• heatstroke, can occur in hot weather, particularly if one is dehydrated or dressed too warmly. The risk of heatstroke can be minimized by avoiding direct sun, and staying wet when possible. This is a life-threatening condition: a victim must be cooled off and transported to a hospital immediately.^[12]
  ^: 289
• high altitude cerebral edema (HACE), both of which are life-threatening and require immediate transportation to a lower altitude.^[13]
• Carbon monoxide poisoning may occur in tents, igloos, cabins, or trailers due to faulty or misused equipment.^[12]: 306 It may also occur near the exhausts of motorboats, where the CO concentrations can be high enough to be quickly fatal.

Topical injuries

• Frostbite can occur when bare skin is exposed to very low temperatures.^[14] Frostbite can be prevented by adequate clothing.^[15]
• Sunburn, which may occur in hot or cold conditions, can be debilitating.^[16] Sunburn may be prevented by wearing adequate sunscreen.
• Snow blindness, a burning of the cornea, is caused by the intense ultraviolet solar radiation multiplied by sunlit snow.^[17]
  Snow blindness may be prevented by wearing dark sunglasses or goggles.
• Burns can occur when dealing with camp stoves. Boiling pots are overturned, clogged fuel lines explode, hot metal is touched with bare skin. Burns are also caused by campfires, cookfires and bonfires
  .
• Lacerations may be caused by careless use of knives or axes, or contact with sharp rocks or barbed wire. Tetanus
  and other infections can result.
• Poisonous plants, such as
  stinging nettle (see list), cause rashes
  .
• Plant thorns and animal quills can cause deep puncture wounds
  , and can be difficult to remove, often requiring pliers.

Animals

In many areas, adventurers may encounter large

predatory animals such as bears or cougars. These animals rarely seek out humans as food, but they will attack under some conditions. Some hazardous encounters occur when animals raid human property for food. Additionally, if travelers come upon an unsuspecting animal and surprise it, it may attack. Regularly making loud noise, such as by clapping or yelling, reduces the risk of surprising an animal. Some people use bear bells as noisemakers, but these are usually too quiet to be heard from far away. Any mammal infected with rabies

may behave unexpectedly, even aggressively, and could infect a human with rabies by biting.

Venomous animals, including

anaphylactic shock. Overall, the greatest danger is often from insects, such as mosquitoes, ticks and fleas

, which carry communicable diseases.

Internal injuries

When combined with lack of proper physical conditioning, cumbersome backpacks increase the risk of missteps and falls, particularly on difficult terrain. Poor judgment due to exhaustion or inattention on steep or slippery slopes can also lead to injury.

• Ankle sprain is a common and debilitating injury. Proper hiking boots can help prevent it.
• Foot blisters are caused by friction and irritation of the skin. Wet socks and poorly fitting shoes precipitate the occurrence of blisters. Two layers of socks (using liner socks) help prevent blisters, and moleskin can be applied to blister-prone areas as a treatment or preventive measure.
• backpacking
  should be bought from a recreational store, and as a rule of thumb, a person who is not overweight can comfortably carry up to one third of his or her body weight; however a backpack weighing more than 50 pounds (23 kg) should be avoided. Hiking poles may also reduce the likelihood of back injuries by spreading the load across multiple points. Care should be taken to lift and put on the pack with the least strain.

Digestive infections

Surface water in the wilderness can contain viruses, bacteria or parasites. The latter two can cause

wilderness diarrhea in untreated water and can be spread person-to-person by poor hygiene in camp. The most common cause of wilderness diarrhea is the parasite Giardia

.

See also

• Hazards of mountaineering
• Hazards in the Rocky Mountains

References

1. ISBN 0-89886-427-5
   .
2. ^ Densmore, Lisa (2010). Backpacker Magazine's Predicting Weather: Forecasting, Planning, And Preparing. Rowman & Littlefield.
3. ^ ^{a b c} Tawrell, Paul (2007). Wilderness Camping & Hiking.
4. ^ McClung, David (2006). The Avalanche Handbook (3rd ed.). The Mountaineers. p. 217.
5. ^ Cinnamon, Jerry (2000). The Complete Climber's Handbook. McGraw Hill. pp. 247–255.
6. ^ Buckley, R (2006). Adventure Tourism. CABI. p. 223.
7. ISBN 978-0-7627-0749-2
   .
8. ^ Selters, Andrew (1999). Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue. The Mountaineers.
9. ^ ^{a b c d} "Navigation". Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills (6th ed.). Mountaineers. 1997.
10. ^ Fountain, Henry (2009-08-20). "Hiking Around in Circles? Probably, Study Says". New York Times.
11. ^ ^{a b c} Goldenberg, Marni; Martin, Bruce, eds. (2008). Hiking and Backpacking. Human Kinetics. pp. 108–109.
12. ^ ^{a b c} Auerbach, Paul S. (2015). Medicine for the Outdoors. Elsevier Health Sciences.
13. ^ Roach, Robert; Stepanek, Jan; Hackett, Peter (2002). "Acute Mountain Sickness and High-Altitude Cerebral Edema". Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments. Vol. 2. Borden Institute. pp. 765–791.
14. PMID 28411928
    .
15. PMID 26857732
    .
16. ^ Sunburn at eMedicine
17. ^ Ultraviolet Keratitis at eMedicine

External links

• A report of carbon monoxide poisoning from a motorboat (U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
• Outdoor & adventure education injury/fatality rates & comparative statistics