History of animal testing
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The history of animal testing goes back to the writings of the
History of animal testing
In 1242, Ibn al-Nafis provided accurate descriptions of the circulation of blood in mammals. A complete description of this circulation was later provided in the 17th century by William Harvey.
In his unfinished 1627 utopian novel, New Atlantis, scientist and philosopher Francis Bacon proposed a research center containing "parks and enclosures of all sorts of beasts and birds which we use ... for dissections and trials; that thereby we may take light what may be wrought upon the body of man."
In the 1660s, the physicist Robert Boyle conducted many experiments with a pump to investigate the effects of rarefied air. He listed two experiments on living nonhuman animals: "Experiment 40", which tested the ability of insects to fly under reduced air pressure, and the dramatic "Experiment 41," which demonstrated the reliance of living creatures on the air for their survival. Boyle conducted numerous trials during which he placed a large variety of different nonhuman animals, including birds, mice, eels, snails and flies, in the vessel of the pump and studied their reactions as the air was removed.[6] Here, he describes an injured lark:
…the Bird for a while appear'd lively enough; but upon a greater Exsuction of the Air, she began manifestly to droop and appear sick, and very soon after was taken with as violent and irregular Convulsions, as are wont to be observ'd in Poultry, when their heads are wrung off: For the Bird threw her self over and over two or three times, and died with her Breast upward, her Head downwards, and her Neck awry.[7]
In the 18th century, Antoine Lavoisier decided to use a guinea pig in a calorimeter because he wanted to prove that respiration was a form of combustion. He had an impression that combustion and respiration are chemically identical. Lavoisier demonstrated this with the help of Pierre-Simon Laplace. They both carefully measured the amount of "carbon dioxide and heat given off by a guinea pig as (they) breathed".[8] Then they contrasted this to "the amount of heat produced when they burned carbon to produce the same amount of carbon dioxide as had been exhaled by the guinea pig".[8] Their conclusion made Lavoisier confident "that respiration is a form of combustion".[8] Also, the result showed that the heat mammals produce through respiration allowed their bodies to be above room temperature.
Stephen Hales measured blood pressure in the
In 1921 Otto Loewi provided the first substantial evidence that neuronal communication with target cells occurred via chemical synapses. He extracted two hearts from frogs and left them beating in an ionic bath. He stimulated the attached Vagus nerve of the first heart and observed its beating slowed. When the second heart was placed in the ionic bath of the first, it also slowed.[9]
In the 1920s, Edgar Adrian formulated the theory of neural communication that the frequency of action potentials, and not the size of the action potentials, was the basis for communicating the magnitude of the signal. His work was performed in an isolated frog nerve-muscle preparation. Adrian was awarded a Nobel Prize for his work.[10]
In the 1960s
In 1996
In 1997, innovations in frogs,
There has been growing concern about both the methodology and the care of animals in laboratories who are used in testing. There is increasing emphasis on more humane and compassionate treatment of other animals.[14] Methodological concerns include factors that make animal study results less reproducible than intended. For example, a 2014 study from McGill University in Montreal, Canada suggests that mice handled by men rather than women showed higher stress levels.[15][16][17]
In medicine
In the 1880s and 1890s, Emil von Behring isolated the diphtheria toxin and demonstrated its effects in guinea pigs. He went on to demonstrate immunity against diphtheria in other animals in 1898 by injecting a mix of toxin and antitoxin. This work constituted in part the rationale for awarding von Behring the 1901 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Roughly 15 years later, Behring announced such a mix suitable for human immunity which largely banished diphtheria from the scourges of humankind.[18] The antitoxin is famously commemorated each year in the Iditarod race, which is modeled after the Nome in the 1925 serum run to Nome. The success of the animal studies in producing the diphtheria antitoxin are attributed by some as a cause of the decline of the early 20th century antivivisectionist movement in the USA.[19]
In 1921,
In 1943, Selman Waksman's laboratory discovered streptomycin using a series of screens to find antibacterial substances from the soil. Waksman coined the term antibiotic with regards to these substances. Waksman would win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1952 for his discoveries in antibiotics. Corwin Hinshaw and William Feldman took the streptomycin samples and cured tuberculosis in four guinea pigs with it. Hinshaw followed these studies with human trials that provided a dramatic advance in the ability to stop and reverse the progression of tuberculosis.[22][23] Mortality from tuberculosis in the UK has diminished from the early 20th century due to better hygiene and improved living standards, but from the moment antibiotics were introduced, the fall became steep so that by the 1980s mortality in developed countries was effectively zero.[24]
In the 1940s, Jonas Salk used rhesus monkey cross-contamination studies to isolate the three forms of the polio virus that affected hundreds of thousands yearly.[25] Salk's team created a vaccine against the strains of polio in cell cultures of rhesus monkey kidney cells. The vaccine was made publicly available in 1955 and reduced the incidence of polio 15-fold in the USA over the following five years.[26] Albert Sabin made a superior "live" vaccine by passing the polio virus through animal hosts, including monkeys. The vaccine was produced for mass consumption in 1963 and is still in use today. It had virtually eradicated polio in the US by 1965.[27] It has been estimated that 100,000 rhesus monkeys were killed in the course of developing the polio vaccines, and 65 doses of vaccine were produced from each monkey. Writing in the Winston-Salem Journal in 1992, Sabin said, "Without the use of nonhuman animals and human (animals), it would have been impossible to acquire the important knowledge needed to prevent much suffering and premature death not only among humans but (other) animals as well."[28]
Also in the 1940s, John Cade tested lithium salts in guinea pigs in a search for pharmaceuticals with anticonvulsant properties. The nonhuman animals seemed calmer in their mood. He then tested lithium on himself, before using it to treat recurrent mania.[29] The introduction of lithium revolutionized the treatment of manic-depressives by the 1970s. Prior to Cade's animal testing, manic-depressives were treated with a lobotomy or electro-convulsive therapy.
In the 1950s the first safer, volatile anaesthetic halothane was developed through studies on rodents, rabbits, dogs, cats and monkeys.[30] This paved the way for a whole new generation of modern general anaesthetics – also developed by animal studies – without which modern, complex surgical operations would be virtually impossible.[31]
In 1960, Albert Starr pioneered heart valve replacement surgery in humans after a series of surgical advances in dogs.[32] He received the Lasker Medical Award in 2007 for his efforts, along with Alain Carpentier. In 1968 Carpentier made heart valve replacements from the heart valves of pigs, which are pre-treated with glutaraldehyd to blunt immune response. Over 300,000 people receive heart valve replacements derived from Starr and Carpentier's designs annually. Carpentier said of Starr's initial advances "Before his prosthetic, patients with valvular disease would die."[33]
In the 1970s, leprosy multi-drug antibiotic treatments were refined using leprosy bacteria grown in armadillos and were then tested in human clinical trials. Today, the nine-banded armadillo is still used to culture the bacteria that causes leprosy, for studies of the proteomics and genomics (the genome was completed in 1998) of the bacteria, for improving therapy and developing vaccines. Leprosy is still prevalent in Brazil, Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania, India, and Nepal, with over 400,000 cases at the beginning of 2004.[34] The bacteria has not yet been cultured in vitro with success necessary to develop drug treatments or vaccines, and mice and armadillos have been the sources of the bacteria for research.[35]
The non-human primate models of AIDS, using HIV-2, SHIV, and SIV in macaques, have been used as a complement to ongoing research efforts against the virus. The drug
Throughout the 20th century, research that used live nonhuman animals has led to many other medical advances and treatments for human diseases, such as:
Presently, animal experimentation continues to be used in research that aims to solve medical problems including Alzheimer's disease,[46] multiple sclerosis[47] spinal cord injury,[48] and many more conditions in which there is no useful in vitro model system available.
Veterinary advances
Animal testing for veterinary studies accounts for around five percent of research using other animals. Treatments to each of the following animal diseases have been derived from animal studies:
Testing other animals for rabies do require the animal to be dead, and it takes two hours to conduct the test.[52]
Basic and applied research in veterinary medicine continues in varied topics, such as searching for improved treatments and vaccines for feline leukemia virus and improving veterinary oncology.
Early debate
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In 1655, physiologist Edmund O'Meara was recorded as saying that "the miserable torture of vivisection places the body in an unnatural state."[53][54] O'Meara thus expressed one of the chief scientific objections to vivisection: that the pain that the individual endured would interfere with the accuracy of the results.
In 1822, the first animal protection law was enacted in the British parliament, followed by the Cruelty to Animals Act (1876), the first law specifically aimed at regulating animal testing. The legislation was promoted by Charles Darwin, who wrote to Ray Lankester in March 1871:
You ask about my opinion on vivisection. I quite agree that it is justifiable for real investigations on physiology; but not for mere damnable and detestable curiosity. It is a subject which makes me sick with horror, so I will not say another word about it, else I shall not sleep to-night."[55][56]
Opposition to the use of nonhuman animals in medical research arose in the United States during the 1860s, when Henry Bergh founded the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), with America's first specifically anti-vivisection organization being the American AntiVivisection Society (AAVS), founded in 1883.
In the UK, an article in the Medical Times and Gazette on April 28, 1877, indicates that anti-vivisectionist campaigners, mainly clergymen, had prepared a number of posters entitled, "This is vivisection," "This is a living dog," and "This is a living rabbit," depicting nonhuman animals in a poses that they said copied the work of Elias von Cyon in St. Petersburg, though the article says the images differ from the originals. It states that no more than 10 or a dozen men were actively involved in animal testing on living nonhuman animals in the UK at that time.[57]
Antivivisectionists of the era believed the spread of mercy was the great cause of civilization, and vivisection was cruel. However, in the U.S., the antivivisectionists' efforts were defeated in every legislature because of the widespread support of an informed public for the careful and judicious use of other animals. The early antivivisectionist movement in the U.S. dwindled greatly in the 1920s. Overall, this movement had no US legislative success. The passing of the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act, in 1999 was more focused on protecting the welfare of other animals who are used in all fields, including research, food production, consumer product development, etc.[58][59]
On the other side of the debate, those in favor of nonhuman-animal testing held that experiments on other animals were necessary to advance medical and biological knowledge and to ensure the safety of products intended for human and animal use. In 1831, the founders of the
See also
- History of model organisms
- Animal testing
- Alarik Frithiof Holmgren
Notes
- ^ Cohen and Loew 1984.
- ^ "History of nonhuman animal research" Archived 2006-10-13 at the Wayback Machine, Laboratory Primate Advocacy Group.
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- ^ a b c "Antoine Lavoisier – Biography, Facts and Pictures". www.famousscientists.org. Retrieved 2016-08-07.
- ^ [1][dead link] O. Loewi (1921) "Uber humorale Ubertragbarkeit der Herznervenwirkung. I." Pflügers Archiv, 189, pp. 239-242
- ^ [2] Adrian Nobel Prize
- ^ "Cloning Dolly the sheep | Animal Research". Archived from the original on 2013-06-07. Retrieved 2012-11-21., AnimalResearch.Info Dolly the Sheep
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- .
- ^ "The world's favourite lab animal has been found wanting, but there are new twists in the mouse's tale". The Economist. 2016-12-24. Retrieved 2017-01-10.
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- ^ "Male Scent May Compromise Biomedical Research". Science | AAAS. 2014-04-28. Retrieved 2017-01-10.
- ^ "Emil von Behring – Biographical".
- ^ Walter B. Cannon Papers, American Philosophical Society Archived 2009-08-14 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Discovery of Insulin Archived 2009-09-30 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Leonard Thompson Bio Page". Archived from the original on 2009-02-10.
- ^ [3] Hinshaw obituary
- ^ [4] Streptomycin
- ISBN 0-525-24673-8
- ^ [5] Virus-typing of polio by Salk
- ^ [6] Salk polio virus
- ^ [7] History of polio vaccine
- ^ ""the work on [polio] prevention was long delayed by... misleading experimental models of the disease in monkeys" - ari.info".
- ^ [8] John Cade and Lithium
- ^ Raventos J (1956) Br J Pharmacol 11, 394
- ^ Whalen FX, Bacon DR & Smith HM (2005) Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 19, 323
- ^ "Portland surgeon receives top medical prize". The Oregonian. 15 September 2007.
- ^ "2007 Lasker Awards announced – The Scientist Magazine®".
- ^ "Home – spectroscopyNOW.com".
- ^ "Armadillos in Research".
- ^ AIDS Reviews 2005;7:67-83 Antiretroviral Drug Studies in Nonhuman Primates: a Valid Animal Model for Innovative Drug Efficacy and Pathogenesis Experiments Archived 2008-12-17 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "PMPA: Experimental Drug That Completely Protects Monkeys Exposed To SIV".
- ^ "Medical Roundup".
- ^ Carrel A (1912) Surg. Gynec. Obst. 14: p. 246
- ^ Williamson C (1926) J. Urol. 16: p. 231
- ^ Woodruff H & Burg R (1986) in Discoveries in Pharmacology vol 3, ed Parnham & Bruinvels, Elsevier, Amsterdam
- ^ Moore F (1964) Give and Take: the Development of Tissue Transplantation. Saunders, New York
- ^ Gibbon JH (1937) Arch. Surg. 34, 1105
- ^ Fleming A (1929) Br J Exp Pathol 10, 226
- ^ Medical Research Council (1956) Br. Med. J. 2: p. 454
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- ^ a b c d e f A reference handbook of the medical sciences. William Wood and Co., 1904, Edited by Albert H. Buck.
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- ^ "Diagnosis in Animals and Humans". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2011-09-20. Retrieved 2016-07-31.
- ^ Ryder, Richard D. Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes Towards Speciesism. Berg Publishers, 2000, p. 54.
- ^ "Animal Experimentation: A Student Guide to Balancing the Issues" Archived 2009-03-27 at the Wayback Machine, Australian and New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in Research and Teaching (ANZCCART), retrieved December 12, 2007, cites original reference in Maehle, A-H. and Tr6hler, U. 1987. Animal experimentation from antiquity to the end of the eighteenth century: attitudes and arguments. In N. A. Rupke (ed.) Vivisection in Historical Perspective. Croom Helm, London, p. 22
- ^ The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, Volume II, fulltextarchive.com.
- ^ Bowlby, John. Charles Darwin: A New Life, W. W. Norton & Company, 1991. p. 420.
- ^ The Latest Phase of the Vivisection Question, Medical Times and Gazette, April 28, 1877, pp. 446–447.
- ^ a b The Physiologist at the-aps.org A Physiologist’s Views on the Animal Rights/Liberation Movement Archived 2008-05-30 at the Wayback Machine by Charles S. Nicoll The Physiologist 34(6): Dec 1991
- ^ Buettinger, Craig Antivivisection and the charge of zoophil-psychosis in the early twentieth century. The Historian 1993
- ^ Costello, John (9 June 2011). "The great zoo's who". Irish Independent.
- ^ Croce, Pietro. Vivisection or Science? An Investigation into Testing Drugs and Safeguarding Health. Zed Books, 1999, p. 11.
- ^ Rudacille, Deborah. The Scalpel and the Butterfly: The Conflict, Farrar Straus Giroux, 2000, p. 19.
- ^ "In sickness and in health: vivisection's undoing", The Daily Telegraph, November 2003.
- ^ Bernard, Claude An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, 1865. First English translation by Henry Copley Greene, published by Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1927; reprinted in 1949, p125
- ^ LaFollette, H., Shanks, N., Animal Experimentation: the Legacy of Claude Bernard, International Studies in the Philosophy of Science (1994) pp. 195-210.
- ^ Mason, Peter. The Brown Dog Affair. Two Sevens Publishing, 1997.