Londinium
Location | London, United Kingdom |
---|---|
Coordinates | 51°30′45″N 0°05′26″W / 51.51250°N 0.09056°W |
Type | Roman city |
History | |
Founded | 43 – 50 AD[2][3] |
Periods | Roman Empire |
Londinium, also known as Roman London, was the capital of Roman Britain during most of the period of Roman rule. Most twenty-first century historians think that it was originally a settlement established shortly after the Claudian invasion of Britain, on the current site of the City of London around 47–50 AD,[4][5][3] but some defend an older view that the city originated in a defensive enclosure constructed during the Claudian invasion in 43 AD.[6] Its earliest securely-dated structure is a timber drain of 47 AD.[7] It sat at a key ford at the River Thames which turned the city into a road nexus and major port (which was built between 49 and 52 AD[3]), serving as a major commercial centre in Roman Britain until its abandonment during the 5th century.
Following the foundation of the town in the mid-1st century, early Londinium occupied the relatively small area of 1.4 km2 (0.5 sq mi), roughly half the area of the modern City of London and equivalent to the size of present-day Hyde Park. In 60 or 61 AD, the rebellion of the Iceni under their queen, Boudica, compelled the Roman forces to abandon the settlement, which was then razed. Following the defeat of Boudica by the Roman governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus a military installation was established,[8] and the city was rebuilt. It had probably largely recovered within about a decade. During the later decades of the 1st century, Londinium expanded rapidly, becoming Britannia's largest city, and it was provided with large public buildings such as a forum[9] and amphitheatre.[10] By the 2nd century, Londinium had grown to perhaps 30,000 or 60,000 people, almost certainly replacing Camulodunum (Colchester) as the provincial capital, and by the mid-2nd century Londinium was at its height. Its forum basilica was one of the largest structures north of the Alps when Emperor Hadrian visited Londinium in 122. Excavations have discovered evidence of a major fire that destroyed much of the city shortly thereafter, but the city was again rebuilt. By the second half of the 2nd century, Londinium appears to have shrunk in both size and population.
Although Londinium remained important for the rest of the Roman period, no further expansion resulted.[citation needed] Londinium supported a smaller but stable settlement population as archaeologists have found that much of the city after this date was covered in dark earth—the by-product of urban household waste, manure, ceramic tile, and non-farm debris of settlement occupation, which accumulated relatively undisturbed for centuries. Some time between 190 and 225, the Romans built a defensive wall around the landward side of the city. The London Wall survived for another 1,600 years and broadly defined the perimeter of the old City of London.
History of London |
---|
|
See also |
London portal |
Name
The
The pronunciation of Londinium in British English is /lʌnˈdɪniəm/ lun-DIN-ee-əm,[23] and its pronunciation in Classical Latin is [ɫɔnˈdɪniʊ̃ː].
Location
The site guarded the Romans' bridgehead on the north bank of the Thames and a major road nexus shortly after the invasion. It was centred on Cornhill and the River Walbrook, but extended west to Ludgate Hill and east to Tower Hill. Just prior to the Roman conquest, the area had been contested by the Catuvellauni based to the west and the Trinovantes based to the east; it bordered the realm of the Cantiaci on the south bank of the Thames.
The Roman city ultimately covered at least the area of the City of London, whose boundaries are largely defined by its former wall. Londinium's waterfront on the Thames ran from around Ludgate Hill in the west to the present site of the Tower in the east, around 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi). The northern wall reached Bishopsgate and Cripplegate near the former site of the Museum of London, a course now marked by the street "London Wall". Cemeteries and suburbs existed outside the city proper. A round temple has been located west of the city, although its dedication remains unclear.
Substantial suburbs existed at St Martin-in-the-Fields in Westminster and around the southern end of the Thames bridge in Southwark, where excavations in 1988[25] and 2021 have revealed an elaborate building with fine mosaics and frescoed walls dating from 72 AD.[26][27] Inscriptions suggest a temple of Isis was located there.[28]
Status
Londinium grew up as a
Depending on the time of its creation, the modesty of Londinium's first forum may have reflected its early elevation to city (municipium) status or may have reflected an administrative concession to a low-ranking but major Romano-British settlement.[32] It had almost certainly been granted colony (colonia) status prior to the complete replanning of the city's street plan attending the erection of the great second forum around the year 120.[33]
By this time, Britain's provincial administration had also almost certainly been moved to Londinium from
History
Founding
Unlike many cities of Roman Britain, Londinium was not placed on the site of a native settlement or
Archaeologist
Londinium expanded around the point on the River Thames narrow enough for the construction of a Roman bridge but still deep enough to handle the era's seagoing ships.[47] Its placement on the Tideway permitted easier access for ships sailing upstream.[47][48] The remains of a massive pier base for such a bridge were found in 1981 close by the modern London Bridge.
Some
Following its foundation in the mid-1st century, early Roman London occupied a relatively small area, about 350 acres (1.4 km2) or roughly the area of present-day Hyde Park. Archaeologists have uncovered numerous goods imported from across the Roman Empire in this period, suggesting that early Roman London was a highly cosmopolitan community of merchants from across the empire and that local markets existed for such objects.
Roads
Of the fifteen British routes recorded in the 2nd- or 3rd-century Antonine Itinerary, seven ran to or from Londinium.[40][53] Most of these were constructed near the time of the city's foundation around 47 AD.[54] The roads are now known by Welsh or Old English names, as their original Roman names have been lost because of the lack of written and inscribed sources. (It was customary elsewhere to name roads after the emperor during whose principate they were completed, but the number and vicinity of routes completed during the time of Claudius would seem to have made this impractical in Britain's case.)
The road from the Kentish ports of
After its reconstruction in the 60s AD, the streets largely adhered to a grid. The main streets were 9–10 m (30–33 ft) wide, while side streets were usually about 5 m (16 ft) wide.[54]
Boudica
In 60 or 61 AD, a little more than ten years after Londinium was founded,
Two hundred ill-equipped men were sent to defend the provincial capital and Roman colony at Camulodunum, probably from the garrison at Londinium.
At first, [Paulinus] hesitated as to whether to stand and fight there. Eventually, his numerical inferiority—and the price only too clearly paid by the divisional commander's rashness—decided him to sacrifice the single city of Londinium to save the province as a whole. Unmoved by lamentations and appeals, Suetonius gave the signal for departure. The inhabitants were allowed to accompany him. But those who stayed because they were women, or old, or attached to the place, were slaughtered by the enemy.
Excavation has revealed extensive evidence of destruction by fire in the form of a layer of red ash beneath the city at this date. Suetonius then returned to the legions' slower infantry, who met and defeated the Iceni army, slaughtering as many as 70,000 men and camp followers. There is a long-standing folklore belief that this battle took place at
1st century
After the sack of the city by Boudica and her defeat, a large military fort covering 15,000 m2 was built at
The city was eventually rebuilt as a
The first forum was constructed in the 70s or 80s[32] and has been excavated, showing it had an open courtyard with a basilica and several shops around it, altogether measuring about 100 m × 50 m (330 ft × 160 ft).[71] The basilica would have functioned as the city's administrative heart, hearing law cases and seating the town's local senate. It formed the north side of the forum, whose south entrance was located along the north side of the intersection of the present Gracechurch, Lombard, and Fenchurch Streets.[72] Forums elsewhere typically had a civic temple constructed within the enclosed market area; British sites usually did not, instead placing a smaller shrine for Roman services somewhere within the basilica. The first forum in Londinium seems to have had a full temple, but placed outside just west of the forum.[73]
By the turn of the century, Londinium was perhaps as large as 60,000 people
Port
A large port complex on both banks near London Bridge was discovered during the 1980s. The bulk of the Roman port was quickly rebuilt after Boudicca's rebellion
2nd century
Emperor Hadrian visited Londinium in 122. The impressive public buildings from around this period may have been initially constructed in preparation for his visit or during the rebuilding that followed the "Hadrianic Fire". The so-called fire is not mentioned in any historical sources but has been inferred by evidence of large-scale burning identified by archaeologists on several excavation sites around the City of London.[81] The best dating evidence for this event(s) comes from burnt stocks of unsold Terra Sigilatta pottery, which can be dated to c. 120–125. These were found in destroyed warehouse or shop buildings at Regis House and Bucklersbury.[82] Hadrianic fire horizons tend to be dated to around the 120s to 130s, but it is difficult to prove that they are contemporary, and there remains some uncertainty as to whether they indicate a single large fire or a series of smaller conflagrations.[81] Fire destroyed substantial areas of the city in the area north of the Thames but does not seem to have damaged many major public buildings. There is very little evidence to suggest similar burning in the adjacent Southwark settlement. The Hadrianic fire (or fires) has normally been assumed to be accidental,[81] but it has also been suggested that it could relate to an episode of political turbulence.[83]
During the early 2nd century, Londinium was at its height, having recovered from the fire and again had between 45,000 and 60,000 inhabitants around 140, with many more stone houses and public buildings erected. Some areas were tightly packed with
A temple complex with two Romano-British temples was excavated at Empire Square, Long Lane, Southwark in 2002/2003. A large house there may have been a guesthouse. A marble slab with a dedication to the god Mars was discovered in the temple complex. The inscription mentions Londiniensi ('the Londoners'), the earliest known reference naming the people of London.[90]
By the second half of the 2nd century, Londinium had many large, well-equipped stone buildings, some of which were richly adorned with wall paintings and floor mosaics, and had subfloor
Londinium seems to have shrunk in both size and population in the second half of the 2nd century. The cause is uncertain, but plague is considered likely, as the Antonine Plague is recorded decimating other areas of Western Europe between 165 and 190. The end of imperial expansion in Britain after Hadrian's decision to build his wall may have also damaged the city's economy. Although Londinium remained important for the rest of the Roman period, no further expansion occurred. Londinium remained well populated, as archaeologists have found that much of the city after this date was covered in dark earth which accumulated relatively undisturbed over centuries.
London Wall
Some time between 190 and 225, the Romans built the London Wall, a defensive ragstone wall around the landward side of the city. Along with Hadrian's Wall and the road network, the London Wall was one of the largest construction projects carried out in Roman Britain.[citation needed] The wall was originally about 5 km (3 mi) long, 6 m (20 ft) high, and 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) thick. Its dry moat (fossa) was about 2 m (6 ft 7 in) deep and 3–5 m (9.8–16.4 ft) wide.[92] In the 19th century, Charles Roach Smith estimated its length from the Tower west to Ludgate at about one mile (1.6 km) and its breadth from the northern wall to the bank of the Thames at around half that.
In addition to small pedestrian
Although the reason for the wall's construction is unknown, some historians have connected it with the
In 2023 a section of the wall at the City Wall at Vine Street Museum opened to the public.[96]
3rd century
Septimius Severus defeated Albinus in 197 and shortly afterwards divided the province of Britain into
Riverside wall
From about 255 onwards, raiding by
Temple of Isis
An inscription found on a third-century stone altar recorded the rebuilding of a temple of Isis by the governor of Britannia Superior – Marcus Martiannius Pulcher.[a][b][c] An earlier inscription found on a first-century flagon suggests that a temple of Isis had existed much earlier.[d][104][105] The Egyptian goddess was believed to have influence over the sea and hence the safety of seafarers.[e][f]
Carausian Revolt
In 286, the emperor
to assassinate and replace him.In 296, Chlorus mounted an invasion of Britain that prompted Allectus's Frankish mercenaries to sack Londinium. They were only stopped by the arrival of a flotilla of Roman warships on the Thames, which slaughtered the survivors.
4th century
Following the revolt, the
The governor's palace
The location of Londinium's original cathedral is uncertain. The present structure of St Peter upon Cornhill was designed by Christopher Wren following the Great Fire in 1666, but it stands upon the highest point in the area of old Londinium and medieval legends tied it to the city's earliest Christian community. However, the east end of St Peter's and its high altar, is also positioned above the area where some basilicas of the period had a pagan shrine room (also known as an aedes). Wheeler proposed that a Christian church might have been established on its site and that this accounted for the later medieval legends.[111][112] The possible existence of the shrine room is supported by 19th-century excavations under Gracechurch Street, immediately adjacent to the church's eastern end. These unearthed an adjoining room covered in yellow panels with a black border, 'with a tessellated floor, suggesting it may have had a higher status than normal, possibly acting as an antechamber for the aedes or shrine-room'.[113] The alignment of the church is close to the lines of the basilica, being off by just two degrees, and it is feasible for the understructure to have utilized the dry solid 2nd century basilica wall fabric for support.[114]
If St Peter's was built in the roman era, it would make the church contemporaneous to the potential Romano-British church at Silchester, similarly built adjacent to the Roman Basilica and most likely pre-Constantine in age.[115][116] London certainly had a Christian community in 314 when Bishop Restitutus attended the Council of Arles. This community must have had some meeting place, and apart from St Peter's no other location has yet been proposed, either in antiquity or in the modern era. There is, however, some conflicting evidence to the theory that St Peter's was deliberately cited above a pagan shrine room. Current research suggests it was very rare for early English Christian churches to be founded in pagan temples[117] and that when temples were turned into churches, this occurred later, in the late 6th century and onwards.[118] This was also true elsewhere in the Roman Empire; for example in Rome. By this time the former associations of the sites had probably died down.[119] There is more evidence that early English Christian churches met in private homes and that some Roman villas also converted rooms to dedicated places of Christian worship.[120]
In 1995 a large and ornate 4th-century building on
From 340 onwards, northern Britain was repeatedly attacked by Picts and Gaels. In 360, a large-scale attack forced Emperor Julian to send troops to deal with the problem. Large efforts were made to improve Londinium's defences around the same time. At least 22 semi-circular towers were added to the city walls to provide platforms for ballistae[93] and the present state of the river wall suggests hurried repair work around this time.[99] In 367, the Great Conspiracy saw a coordinated invasion of Picts, Gaels, and Saxons joined with a mutiny of troops along the wall. Count Theodosius dealt with the problem over the next few years, using Londinium—then known as "Augusta"—as his base.[124] It may have been at this point that one of the existing provinces was renamed Valentia, although the account of Theodosius's actions describes it as a province recovered from the enemy.
In 382, Emperor Magnus Maximus organised all of the British-based troops and attempted to establish himself as western emperor. The event was obviously important to the Britons, as "Macsen Wledig" would remain a major figure in Welsh folklore, and several medieval Welsh dynasties claimed descent from him. He was probably responsible for London's new church in the 370s or 380s.[121][122] He was initially successful but was defeated by Theodosius I at the 388 Battle of Save. An additional stretch of the river wall near Tower Hill seems to have been built further from the shore at some point over the next decade.[99]
5th century
With few troops left in Britain, many Romano-British towns—including Londinium—declined drastically over the next few decades. Many of London's public buildings had fallen into disrepair by this point,[citation needed] and excavations of the port show signs of rapid disuse.[78] Between 407 and 409, large numbers of barbarians overran Gaul and Hispania, seriously weakening communication between Rome and Britain. Trade broke down, officials went unpaid, and Romano-British troops elected their own leaders. Constantine III declared himself emperor over the West and crossed the Channel, an act considered the Roman withdrawal from Britain since Emperor Honorius subsequently directed the Britons to look to their own defence rather than send another garrison force.[125] Surviving accounts are scanty and mixed with Welsh and Saxon legends concerning Vortigern, Hengest, Horsa, and Ambrosius Aurelianus. Even archaeological evidence of Londinium during this period is minimal.
Despite remaining on the list of Roman provinces, Romano-Britain seems to have dropped their remaining loyalties to Rome. Raiding by the
Over the next century,
Demographics
The population of Londinium is estimated to have peaked around 100 AD when the population is estimated between about 30,000
Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including those with backgrounds continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.[137] A 2017 genetic test of human remains in Roman cemeteries states the "presence of people born in London with North African ancestry is not an unusual or atypical result for Londinium."[138] A 2016 study of the isotope analysis of 20 bodies from various periods suggests that at least 12 had grown up locally, with four being immigrants.[139] The average height for male Londoners was 5'6¾" (169cm) and the average height for female Londoners was 5'2¼" (158cm).[140]
Excavation
Many ruins remain buried beneath London, although understanding them can be difficult. Owing to London's geology, which consists of a Taplow Terrace deep bed of brickearth, sand, and gravel over clay,[141] Roman gravel roads can only be identified as such if they were repeatedly relayered or if the spans of gravel can be traced across several sites. The minimal remains from wooden structures are easy to miss, and stone buildings may leave foundations, but as with the great forum they were often dismantled for stone during the Middle Ages and early modern period.[33]
The first extensive archaeological review of the Roman city of London was done in the 17th century after the Great Fire of 1666. Christopher Wren's renovation of St Paul's on Ludgate Hill found no evidence supporting Camden's contention[142] that it had been built over a Roman temple to the goddess Diana.[143] The extensive rebuilding of London in the 19th century and following the German bombing campaign during World War II also allowed for large parts of old London to be recorded and preserved while modern updates were made.[145] The construction of the London Coal Exchange led to the discovery of the Roman house at Billingsgate in 1848.
In the 1860s, excavations by
In 1947, the city's northwest fortress of the city garrison was discovered.[151] In 1954, excavations of what was thought to have been an early church instead revealed the London Mithraeum, which was relocated to permit building over its original site. The building erected at the time has since been demolished, and the temple has been returned to its former location under the Bloomberg building.
Archaeologists began the first intensive excavation of the waterfront sites of Roman London in the 1970s. What was not found during this time has been built over, making it very difficult to study or discover anything new.[13] Another phase of archaeological work followed the deregulation of the London Stock Exchange in 1986, which led to extensive new construction in the city's financial district. From 1991, many excavations were undertaken by the Museum of London's Archaeology Service, although it was spun off into the separately-run MOLA in 2011 following legislation to address the Rose Theatre fiasco.
Displays
Major finds from Roman London, including mosaics, wall fragments, and old buildings, were formerly housed in the London and Guildhall Museums.[80] These merged after 1965[152] into the present Museum of London, sited from 1976 until 2022 near the Barbican Centre. The Museum of London Docklands, a separate branch dealing with the history of London's ports, opened on the Isle of Dogs in 2003. Other finds from Roman London continue to be held in the British Museum.[80]
Much of the surviving wall is medieval, but Roman-era stretches are visible near Tower Hill tube station, in a hotel courtyard at nearby 8–10 Coopers Row, and in St Alphege Gardens off Wood Street.[93] A section of the river wall is visible inside the Tower of London.[99][100] Parts of the amphitheatre are on display beneath the Guildhall Art Gallery.[89] The southwestern tower of the Roman fort northwest of town can still be seen at Noble Street.[88] Occasionally, Roman sites are incorporated into the foundations of new buildings for future study, but these are not generally available to the public.[71][91]
References
- ^ Note that this image includes both the garrison fort, which was demolished in the 3rd century, and the Mithraeum, which was abandoned around the same time. The identification of the "governor's palace" remains conjectural.
- OCLC 1042078915.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ ISBN 978-1-316-19483-6.
- OCLC 1042078915.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - )
- ^ Perring, London in the Roman World, pp. 51-63
- ^ Number 1 Poultry (ONE 94), Museum of London Archaeology, 2013. Archaeology Data Service, The University of York.
- OCLC 920542650.
- OCLC 16415134.
- OCLC 276334521.
- ^ Galfredus Monemutensis [Geoffrey of Monmouth]. Historia Regnum Britanniae [History of the Kings of Britain], Vol. III, Ch. xx. c. 1136. (in Latin)
- ^ Geoffrey of Monmouth. Translated by J.A. Giles & al. as Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, Vol. III, Ch. XX, in Six Old English Chronicles of Which Two Are Now First Translated from the Monkish Latin Originals: Ethelwerd's Chronicle, Asser's Life of Alfred, Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, Gildas, Nennius, and Richard of Cirencester. Henry G. Bohn (London), 1848. Hosted at Wikisource.
- ^ a b Haverfield, p. 145
- d'Arbois de Jubainville and is generally accepted, as by Haverfield.[13]
- S2CID 163506021.
- .
- ^ This is the argument made by Jackson[15] and accepted by Coates.[16]
- ^ Peter Schrijver, Language Contact and the Origins of the Germanic Languages (2013), p. 57.
- ^ a b c Ford, David Nash. "The 28 Cities of Britain Archived 15 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine" at Britannia. 2000.
- ^ a b Nennius (attrib.). Theodor Mommsen (ed.). Historia Brittonum, VI. Composed after 830. (in Latin) Hosted at Latin Wikisource.
- ^ a b Newman, John Henry & al. Lives of the English Saints: St. German, Bishop of Auxerre, Ch. X: "Britain in 429, A. D.", p. 92. Archived 21 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine James Toovey (London), 1844.
- ^ "Londinium". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 12 February 2023.
- Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition. 1911.
- ^ The London Archaeologist 1988 Vol 5 No. 14
- ^ The Liberty of Southwark https://thedig.thelibertyofsouthwark.com/
- ^ London's largest Roman mosaic find for 50 years uncovered https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-60466187
- ^ White, Kevan (7 February 2016). "LONDINIVM AVGVSTA". roman-britain.co.uk. Archived from the original on 13 February 2018. Retrieved 1 February 2018.
- ^ a b c Tacitus. Ab Excessu Divi Augusti Historiarum Libri [Books of History from the Death of the Divine Augustus], Vol. XIV, Ch. XXXIII. c. AD 105. Hosted at Latin Wikisource. (in Latin)
- ^ Latin: Londinium..., cognomento quidem coloniae non insigne, sed copia negotiatorum et commeatuum maxime celebre.[29]
- ^ a b c Tacitus. Translated by Alfred John Church & William Jackson Brodribb. Annals of Tacitus, Translated into English, with Notes and Maps, Book XIV, § 33. Macmillan & Co., London, 1876. Reprinted by Random House, 1942. Reprinted by the Perseus Project, c. 2011. Hosted at Wikisource.
- ^ a b Merrifield, pp. 64–66.
- ^ a b c Merrifield, p. 68.
- ^ Egbert, James. Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions, p. 447. American Book Co. (Cincinnati),1896.
- ^ Latin: P·P·BR·LON [Publicani Provinciae Britanniae Londinienses] & P·PR·LON [Publicani Provinciae Londinienses][34]
- ^ Wacher, p. 85.
- Labbé, Philippe & Gabriel Cossart (eds.) Sacrosancta Concilia ad Regiam Editionem Exacta: quae Nunc Quarta Parte Prodit Actior [The Sancrosanct Councils Exacted for the Royal Edition: which the Editors Now Produce in Four Parts], Vol. I: "Ab Initiis Æræ Christianæ ad Annum CCCXXIV" ["From the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Year 324"], col. 1429.The Typographical Society for Ecclesiastical Books (Paris), 1671. (in Latin)
- ^ Thackery, Francis. Researches into the Ecclesiastical and Political State of Ancient Britain under the Roman Emperors: with Observations upon the Principal Events and Characters Connected with the Christian Religion, during the First Five Centuries, pp. 272 ff. T. Cadell (London), 1843. (in Latin and English)
- ^ a b "Nomina Episcoporum, cum Clericis Suis, Quinam, et ex Quibus Provinciis, ad Arelatensem Synodum Convenerint" ["The Names of the Bishops with Their Clerics who Came Together at the Synod of Arles and from which Province They Came"] from the Consilia[37] in Thackery[38]
- ^ a b "Living in Roman London: From Londinium to London". London: The Museum of London. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ Hingley, Introduction
- ^ Wright, Thomas (1852). The Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon: A history of the early inhabitants of Britain, down to the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. London: Arthur Hall, Virtue & Co. p. 95.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - S2CID 160758496.
- ISSN 1468-0092.
- ISBN 978-1-107-04757-0. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
- ^ Hingley, start of Introduction
- ^ a b c Merrifield, p. 40.
- tidal limit of the Thames at the time, with the port in tidal waters and the bridge upstream beyond its reach.[47] This is uncertain, however: in the Middle Ages, the Thames's tidal reach extended to Staines and today it still reaches Teddington.
- ^ Togodumnus (2011). "Londinivm Avgvsta: Provincial Capital". Roman Britain. Archived from the original on 20 February 2015. Retrieved 16 February 2015.
- ^ Wacher, pp. 88–90.
- ^ Number 1 Poultry (ONE 94), Museum of London Archaeology, 2013. Archaeology Data Service, The University of York.
- ^ Antonine Itinerary. British Routes. Routes 2, 3, & 4.
- ^ Although three of them used the same route into town.[52]
- ^ a b c d "Public life: All roads lead to Londinium". Museum of London Group. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-319-22942-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-62010-9.
- ^ Fearnside, William Gray; Harral, Thomas (1838). The History of London: Illustrated by Views of London and Westminster. Illustrated by John Woods. London: Orr & Co. p. 15.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-822922-3.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-520-04922-2.
- ^ a b Merrifield, pp. 32–33.
- Kingston.[57] Against such doubts, Sheppard notes the known routes broadly direct towards Westminster in a way "inconceivable" if they were meant to be directed towards a ferry at Londinium[58] and Merrifield points to routes directed towards the presumed ford from Southwark.[59] Both include maps of the known routes around London and their proposed reconstruction of major connections now-lost.[58][59][60]
- ^ Tacitus, Annals, 12.31.
- H. H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero, 1982, p. 90
- ^ John Morris, Londinium: London in the Roman Empire, 1982, pp. 107–108
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 62.2
- ^ Tacitus, Annals, 14.31
- ^ a b c Merrifield, p. 53.
- ^ "Highbury, Upper Holloway and King's Cross", Old and New London: Volume 2 (1878:273–279). Date accessed: 26 December 2007.
- ^ An early Roman fort and urban development on Londinium's eastern hill: excavations at Plantation Place, City of London, 1997–2003, L. Dunwoodie et al. MOLA 2015. ISBN 978-1-907586-32-3
- ^ Merrifield, pp. 66–68.
- ^ a b c d "Londinium Today: Basilica and forum". Museum of London Group. Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2021.
- ^ Merrifield, p. 62.
- ^ Merrifield, pp. 63–64.
- ISBN 978-1-4516-4760-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-63278-2.
- ^ a b c Marsden, Peter (1975). "The Excavation of a Roman Palace Site in London". Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society. 26: 1–102.
- ISBN 978-1-84222-901-9.
- ^ a b Milne.
- ^ a b Brigham.
- ^ a b c Hall & Merrifield.
- ^ OCLC 1042078915.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - )
- ISSN 0068-113X.
- ISBN 978-1-84908-313-3.
- ^ Merrifield, p. 50.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-11-290442-7.
- ^ According to a recovered inscription. The location of the Temple of Jupiter has not been discovered yet.
- ^ a b c d e "Londinium Today: The fort". Museum of London Group. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- ^ a b "Londinium Today: The amphitheatre". Museum of London Group. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- ^ "Roman London Fragments, Cosmetic Cream And Bikini Bottoms". Londonist. 10 August 2015.
- ^ a b "Londinium Today: House and baths at Billingsgate". Museum of London Group. Retrieved 20 February 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-7864-5918-6.
- ^ a b c d e f "Visible Roman London: City wall and gates". Museum of London Group. Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
- William FitzStephen mentioned seven gates in London's landward wall, but it's not clear whether this included a minor postern gate or another, now unknown, major gate. Moorgate was later counted as a seventh major gate after its enlargement in 1415, but in William's time it would have been a minor postern gate.[93]
- ^ "Timeline of Romans in Britain". Channel4.com. Retrieved 24 August 2012.
- ^ London Roman wall on display after 40 years hidden in basement https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-66365542
- ^ "Visible Roman London: Temple of Mithras". Museum of London Group. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-7195-4080-6.
- ^ a b c d e "Londinium Today: Riverside wall". Museum of London Group. Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ doi:10.5284/1070656– via Archaeology Data Service.
- ^ de la Bédoyère 2013, pp. 86.
- ^ de la Bédoyère 2013, pp. 235.
- ^ de la Bédoyère 2013, pp. 98.
- ^ *"Ancient Roman temple dedicated to the goddess Isis". HERITAGE DAILY. Retrieved 3 October 2023.
- ^ *"Worship of this Egyptian goddess spread from Egypt to England". National Geographic. Retrieved 3 October 2023.
- ^ Rodgers 2017, pp. 426.
- ^ Eumenius.
- ^ The medallion is named for its mint mark from Augusta Treverorum (Trier); it was discovered in Arras, France, in the 1920s.
- ^ Giraldus Cambriensis [Gerald of Wales]. De Inuectionibus [On Invectives], Vol. II, Ch. I, in Y Cymmrodor: The Magazine of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, Vol. XXX, pp. 130–31. George Simpson & Co. (Devizes), 1920. (in Latin)
- ^ Gerald of Wales. Translated by W.S. Davies as The Book of Invectives of Giraldus Cambrensis in Y Cymmrodor: The Magazine of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, Vol. XXX, p. 16. George Simpson & Co. (Devizes), 1920.
- ^ R.E.M. Wheeler, The Topography of Saxon London, p296, Antiquity , Volume 8, Issue 31, September 1934.
- ^ The Roman Forum Site in London, Discoveries before 1985. Peter Marsden, London, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1987, p68
- S2CID 162318121.
- ^ King Lucius of Britain, David Knight, 2008 p98.
- ISSN 1468-0092.
- ISBN 978-0-19-969773-1.
- ^ Tyler W Bell, The Religious Reuse of Roman Structures in Anglo-Saxon England, 2001, p105 and p109 - only 2 churches have been found that are sited on a roman temple, just 0.7% of the total, accessed 26 Sep 2022
- ^ Tyler W Bell, The Religious Reuse of Roman Structures in Anglo-Saxon England, 2001, p108, accessed 26 Sep 2022
- ^ The Conversion of Temples in Rome, Feyo L. Schuddeboom, Journal of Late Antiquity, 22 September 2017, p175.
- ^ Examining the evidence for churches in Roman Britain; is this a concrete indication of Romano-British churches? Nathan Day, The Post Hole, December 2019, accessed 26 Sep 2022
- ^ a b c d Denison, Simon (June 1995). "News: In Brief". British Archaeology. Council for British Archaeology. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2013.
- ^ a b c Keys, David (3 April 1995). "Archaeologists unearth capital's first cathedral: Giant edifice built out of secondhand masonry". The Independent. London.
- ^ Sankey, D. (1998). "Cathedrals, granaries and urban vitality in late Roman London". In Watson, Bruce (ed.). Roman London: Recent Archaeological Work. JRA Supplementary Series. Vol. 24. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology. pp. 78–82.
- ^ Riddell, Jim. "The status of Roman London". Archived from the original on 24 April 2008.
- ^ a b c "Roman London: A Brief History". Museum of London. Archived from the original on 12 September 2009.
- ^ Giles, John Allen (ed. & trans.). "The Works of Gildas, Surnamed 'Sapiens,' or the Wise" in Six Old English Chronicles of Which Two Are Now First Translated from the Monkish Latin Originals: Ethelwerd's Chronicle, Asser's Life of Alfred, Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, Gildas, Nennius, and Richard of Cirencester. Henry G. Bohn (London), 1848.
- ^ Habington, Thomas (trans.). The Epistle of Gildas the most ancient British Author: who flourished in the yeere of our Lord, 546. And who by his great erudition, sanctitie, and wisdome, acquired the name of Sapiens. Faithfully translated out of the originall Latine in 8 vols. T. Cotes for William Cooke (London), 1638.
- ^ The Ruin of Britain, Ch. 22 ff, John Allen Giles's revision[126] of Thomas Habington's translation,[127] hosted at Wikisource.
- S2CID 163877146, archived from the originalon 13 March 2020, retrieved 6 January 2014
- JSTOR 30070428.
- The Venerable Bede]. Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum [The Ecclesiastical History of the English People], Vol. I, Ch. XV, & Vol. V, Ch. XXIIII. 731. Hosted at Latin Wikisource. (in Latin)
- ^ Bede. Translated by Lionel Cecil Jane as The Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, Vol. 1, Ch. 15, & Vol. 5, Ch. 24. J.M. Dent & Co. (London), 1903. Hosted at Wikisource.
- ^ a b Anonymous. Translated by James Ingram. The Saxon Chronicle, with an English Translation, and Notes, Critical and Explanatory. To Which Are Added Chronological, Topographical, and Glossarial Indices; a Short Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language; a New Map of England during the Heptarchy; Plates of Coins, &c., p. 15., "An. CCCCLV." Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, & Brown (London), 1823. (in Old English and English)
- ^ Sheppard, 35, google books
- ^ Sheppard, 35-36
- ^ DNA study finds London was ethnically diverse from start, BBC, 23 November 2015
- ISSN 0068-113X.
- ^ Janet Montgomery, Rebecca Redfern, Rebecca Gowland, Jane Evans, Identifying migrants in Roman London using lead and strontium stable isotopes, 2016, Journal of Archaeological Science [1]
- ISBN 090481890X.
- ^ Grimes, Ch. I.
- Britannia(in Latin), London: G. Bishop & J. Norton, pp. 306–7
- ^ Clark, John (1996). "The Temple of Diana". In Bird, Joanna; et al. (eds.). Interpreting Roman London. Oxbow Monograph. Vol. 58. Oxford: Oxbow. pp. 1–9.
- ISBN 978-1-317-60471-6.
- Grimes.[144]
- ^ Thorpe, Lewis. The History of the Kings of Britain, p. 19. Penguin, 1966.
- ^ Galfredus Monemutensis [Geoffrey of Monmouth]. Historia Regnum Britanniae [History of the Kings of Britain], Vol. V, Ch. iv. c. 1136. (in Latin)
- ^ Geoffrey of Monmouth. Translated by J.A. Giles & al. as Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, Vol. V, Ch. IV, in Six Old English Chronicles of Which Two Are Now First Translated from the Monkish Latin Originals: Ethelwerd's Chronicle, Asser's Life of Alfred, Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, Gildas, Nennius, and Richard of Cirencester. Henry G. Bohn (London), 1848. Hosted at Wikisource.
- ^ Merrifield, p. 57.
- ^ Morris, John. Londinium: London in the Roman Empire, p. 111. 1982.
- ^ Grimes, Ch. II, § 2.
- ^ "Museum of London Act 1965". legislation.gov.uk. National Archives. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
Notes
- ^ Roman Britain (Guy de la Bédoyère)
Upper Thames street
..."Altar found reused in a riverside wall recording the rebuilding of a temple of Isis by the governor of Britannia Superior – Marcus Martiannius Pulcher...[101] - ^ See also Marcus Martiannius Pulcher > ...he repaired the temple of Isis which had collapsed through old age...
- ^ Roman Britain (Guy de la Bédoyère)
..."Mainly originating in the Eastern Empire, cults like the worship of Isis had started to become fashionable in Rome...Their veneration in the Roman world was a typical consequence of an international society in which soldiers, officials and traders travelled widely across Europe, North Africa and the Near East [102] - ^ Roman Britain (Guy de la Bédoyère)
..."Two inscriptions, a first-century graffito on a flagon, and a third-century altar, record a temple of Isis in London... [103] - ^ Ancient Rome (Nigel Rodgers)
..."As her worship spread around the Mediterranean...Isis became known as Stella Maris (star of the sea) the divine protector of sailors and fishermen...[106] - ^ See also Isis > In the Greco-Roman world > Festivals > ...The first festival was the Navigium Isidis...which celebrated Isis's influence over the sea...
Sources
- ISBN 978-0500291146.
- Billings, Malcolm (1994), London: a companion to its history and archaeology, ISBN 1-85626-153-0
- Brigham, Trevor. 1998. “The Port of Roman London.” In Roman London Recent Archeological Work, edited by B. Watson, 23–34. Michigan: Cushing–Malloy Inc. Paper read at a seminar held at The Museum of London, 16 November.
- Hall, Jenny, and Ralph Merrifield. Roman London. London: HMSO Publications, 1986.
- Haverfield, F. "Roman London." The Journal of Roman Studies 1 (1911): 141–72.
- Hingley, Richard, Londinium: A Biography: Roman London from its Origins to the Fifth Century, 2018, Bloomsbury Publishing, ISBN 1350047317, 9781350047310
- Inwood, Stephen. A History of London (1998) ISBN 0-333-67153-8
- Home, Gordon (1948), Roman London: A.D. 43–457 Eyre and Spottiswoode, London
- Milne, Gustav. The Port of Roman London. London: B.T. Batsford, 1985.
- Perring, Dominic (2022). London in the Roman World. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-878900-0.
- ISBN 978-0754834205.
- Sheppard, Francis, London: A History, 2000, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0192853694, 9780192853691, google books
- John Wacher: The Towns of Roman Britain, London/New York 1997, p. 88–111. ISBN 0-415-17041-9
Further reading
- Wallace, Lacey M. (2014). The Origin of Roman London. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107047570.
External links
- Roman London, History of World Cities
- Roman London, Encyclopædia Britannica (archived 13 December 2010)
- A map of known and conjectural Roman roads around Londinium, from London: A History (on Internet Archive)
- The eastern cemetery of Roman London: excavations 1983–90 Archived 3 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Museum of London Archive