Match fixing
This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. (September 2021) |
In organized sports, match fixing (also known as game fixing, race fixing, or more generally sports fixing) is the act of playing or officiating a contest with the intention of achieving a predetermined result, violating the rules of the game and often the law. There are many reasons why match fixing might take place, including receiving bribes from bookmakers or sports bettors, and blackmail. Competitors may also intentionally perform poorly to gain a future advantage, such as a better draft pick[1] or to face an easier opponent in a later round of competition.[2] A player might also play poorly to rig a handicap system.[3]
Match fixing, when motivated by gambling, requires contacts (and normally money transfers) between gamblers, players, team officials, and/or referees. These contacts and transfers can sometimes be discovered, and lead to prosecution by the law or the sports league(s). In contrast, losing for future advantage is internal to the team and very difficult to prove. Often, substitutions are made by a coach, designed to deliberately increase the team's chances of losing (such as having key players sit out, often using minimal or phantom injuries as an excuse), rather than ordering the players who are actually on the field to intentionally underperform, are cited as the main factor in cases where this has been alleged.
Match fixing includes point shaving and spot-fixing, which center on smaller events within a match that can be wagered upon but are unlikely to prove decisive in determining the game's final result. According to Sportradar, a company that monitors the integrity of sports events on behalf of sports federations, as many as one percent of the matches they monitor show suspicious betting patterns that may be indicative of match fixing.[4]
Games that are deliberately lost are sometimes called "thrown games", especially when a team has nothing to play for (either having already qualified for the next stage of competition or is arithmetically unable to qualify for the next stage of the competition, or is in the process of being eliminated.) In contrast, when a team intentionally loses a game or does not score as high as it can, to obtain a perceived future competitive advantage, the team is often said to have "tanked" the game instead of having thrown it. In sports where a handicap or ranking system exists and is capable of being abused (including sports such as racing, grappling and golf), tanking is known as "sandbagging". Hustling, where a player disguises his abilities until he can play for large amounts of money, is a common practice in many cue sports, such as nine-ball pool.
Motivations and causes
Some major motivations behind match fixing are gambling and future team advantage. According to investigative journalist Declan Hill it has also been linked to corruption, violence and tax avoidance.[5] In Eastern Europe, organized crime is linked to illegal gambling and score fixing. In Russia, people have disappeared or been murdered after acting against bribery in sports.[6]
Agreements with gamblers
There may be financial gain through agreements with gamblers. The Black Sox Scandal of 1919, in which several members of the MLB’s Chicago White Sox conspired with gamblers to fix that year’s World Series for monetary gain.[7]
One of the best-known examples of gambling-related race fixing (in motorsports) is the 1933 Tripoli Grand Prix, in which the winning number of the lottery was determined by the number of the race-winning car. One ticket holder held the number belonging to Achille Varzi, contacted him and agreed to share the winning should he win. Varzi contacted other drivers who agreed to share the money if they deliberately lost. Despite a poor start, Varzi won the race after his opponents deliberately underperformed throughout the race.[8]
A large match-fixing ring in the lower levels of professional tennis, centered around gambling, was broken up in 2023. At least 181 players were involved.[9]
Better playoff chances
Many sports have tournaments where the result of one round determines their opponent in the next round. As a result, by losing a match, a team can face an easier opponent in the next round, making them more likely to win.
The National Basketball Association (NBA) is the only one of the four major professional sports leagues of the United States and Canada in which home advantage in the playoffs is based strictly on regular-season records without regard to seeding. The top six teams earn an automatic playoff berth, while the seventh through tenth teams compete for the last two seeds in a "play-in tournament".[10]
In the
A more recent example of possible tanking occurred in the
The 1998 Tiger Cup – an international football tournament contested by countries in Southeast Asia – saw an example of two teams trying to lose a match. The tournament was hosted by Vietnam, with the eight countries competing split into two groups of four. The top two in each group advanced to the semi-finals with the winners playing the runners-up of the other group. In the first group, Singapore finished on top with Vietnam finishing second; this meant that the winners of the second group would have to travel to Hanoi to play the host nation in the national stadium on their national day, while the runners-up would face Singapore in Ho Chi Minh City where the final group match was taking place.[12] As the two teams involved – Thailand and Indonesia – had both already qualified for the semi-finals, it was in both teams' interest to lose the match and finish in second place. As the game progressed, neither side seemed particularly concerned with scoring, while the defending was lackadaisical. As the match entered stoppage time, Indonesian defender Mursyid Effendi scored an own goal, overcoming the efforts of several Thai players and the goalkeeper to stop him. Both teams were fined $40,000, and Effendi was banned from international football for life.[13]
In the final month of the 2010 Major League Baseball season, the New York Yankees and Tampa Bay Rays were in a tight race for the American League East division title and by the final week, both teams had already clinched at least the wild card. The Yankees went 3–7 over the final 10 games, losing their regular-season finale, while the Rays went 5–5 and won theirs, giving the Rays the AL East title by one game and the Yankees the AL wild-card berth. Winning the division would have given New York an ALDS matchup against the Texas Rangers, who at the time had star pitcher Cliff Lee; the Yankees instead defeated the Minnesota Twins, a team they historically have had more postseason success against. Allegations of the Yankees purposefully settling for the wild card, presumably to avoid facing Texas in the ALDS, began to surface after the Yankees defeated the Twins. Additional allegations came up in 2012 when Yankees general manager Brian Cashman commented in response to a possible playoff expansion that his team had “conceded the division” and that winning it meant “nothing more than a T-shirt and a hat”.[14][15] However, Cashman insisted that the Yankees were not motivated by any desire to lose games, but were merely ensuring their best players were well-rested for the postseason, which he contended was perfectly ethical behavior. In 2012, Major League Baseball added a second wild card in each league, with the two wild cards playing a single-elimination game in order to give more importance to winning the division. In 2022, the postseason was further expanded, adding a third wild card and making the round a best-of-three series.
The 2012 Summer Olympics saw two examples of tanking of this type:
- Members of four badminton teams from China, Indonesia and South Korea were ejected from the women's doubles tournament for intentionally losing matches to allow better pairings in the knockout stages of the competition.[16][17] In what the BBC called a “night of shame,” players made simple errors throughout the match, despite booing and jeering from the crowd, and warnings from the match umpire and tournament referee to cease and desist. The Badminton World Federation found the four pairs guilty of “not using one’s best efforts to win a match” and “conducting oneself in a manner that is clearly abusive or detrimental to the sport.”[18]
- In the
Tanking can also happen in high-school level sports. For example, In February 2015, two girls' basketball teams representing Nashville-area Riverdale and Smyrna High Schools were found to be tanking during a consolation match of their district tournament.[20] The winner of the game would enter the same side of the regional tournament bracket as defending state champion[20] Blackman High School (ranked as one of the country's top 10 teams by some national publications), setting up a potential match in the regional semifinals.[21] The loser would thus avoid Blackman until the regional final, a game whose participants would both advance to the sectional tournament (one step short of the state tournament).[21] During the game both teams pulled their starters early, missed shots on purpose, intentionally turned over the ball and deliberately committed fouls.[20] The Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Association, which governs high school sports in the state, ejected both teams from the postseason, fined the two schools (Riverdale $1,000 and Smyrna $500), and placed both teams on probation through the 2015–16 school year.[20]
As previously mentioned, the practice of coaches on a playoff-bound team deliberately benching a team's best players for some or all of the final match(es) of the regular season (or alternatively, giving them less playing time than would normally be warranted) is often defended as a common sense measure to avoid unnecessarily risking injuries and fatigue to the team's star players.[22] Some argue that a coach should not only have the right to select a starting lineup for a match that gives the team the best chances of winning titles in the long run — should this be a different lineup than the one that gives the team the best chances of winning the game at hand — but that doing so is the smartest course of action.
For example, during Euro 2004 the Czech Republic rested nearly all of its starters from the first two group matches for the final group match against Germany. Since the Czechs had already clinched first place in the group, this move was seen to have the potential to allow Germany a better chance to get the win they needed to advance at the expense of the winner of the Netherlands–Latvia game. As it happened, the Czechs' decision to field a "weaker" side did not matter since the Czechs won the match anyway to eliminate the Germans.
Better draft position
Most top-level sports leagues in North America and Australia hold drafts to allocate young players to the league's teams. The order in which teams select players is often the inverse of their standings in the previous season. As a result, a team may have a significant incentive to tank games to secure a higher pick in the league's next draft, and a number of leagues have changed their draft rules to remove (or at least limit) potential incentives to tank.
From 1966 to 1984, the NBA used a coin flip between the teams with the worst records in each of the league's two conferences to determine the recipient of the top pick. In the 1983–84 season, several teams were accused of deliberately losing games in an attempt to gain a top position in the 1984 draft, which would eventually produce four Hall of Fame players. As a result of this, the NBA established a draft lottery in advance of the 1985 draft, involving all teams that did not make the playoffs in the previous season. This lottery system prevented teams from receiving fixed draft positions based on record place, which the league hoped would discourage them from deliberately losing.[23][24]
Even though the lottery in place through the 2018 draft gave the team with the worst record only the same chance at the top pick as the 2nd and 3rd worst teams (with that team guaranteed no worse than the fourth pick), there was still perceived incentive for a team to tank. Responding to these perceived incentives, the NBA further tweaked its lottery rules shortly before the start of the 2017–18 season. Effective with the 2019 draft, the teams with the three worst records have equal odds of landing the #1 pick (barring one of these teams also owning another lottery team's pick), and the top four picks are allocated in the lottery instead of the top three.[25] This limits but does not eliminate the incentive to tank, particularly when there is at least one exceptional prospect.[26]
The
Until the
More favorable schedule next year
NFL teams have been accused of tanking games to obtain a more favorable schedule the following season; this was especially true between 1977 and 1993, when a team finishing last in a five-team division would get to play four of its eight non-division matches the next season against other last-place teams.
In the current scheduling formula which has been in place since 2002 and slightly amended in 2021, only three games in a team's schedule are dependent on a team's placement the previous season. The remaining eight non-division games are the same for all teams in a division.
Match fixing by referees
In addition to the match fixing that is committed by players, coaches and/or team officials, it is not unheard of to have results manipulated by corrupt
On December 2, 1896, former
Eight years later, Dr. B. Brookes Lee was arrested in Portland, Oregon. He had been accused of treating Sharkey to make it appear that he had been fouled by Fitzsimmons. Lee said, "I fixed Sharkey up to look as if he had been fouled. How? Well, that is something I do not care to reveal, but I will assert that it was done—that is enough. There is no doubt that Fitzsimmons was entitled to the decision and did not foul Sharkey. I got $1,000 for my part in the affair."[32]
Match fixing to a draw or a fixed score
Match fixing does not necessarily involve deliberately losing a match. Occasionally, teams have been accused of deliberately playing to a draw or a fixed score where this ensures some mutual benefit (e.g. both teams advancing to the next stage of a competition.) One of the earliest examples of this sort of match fixing in the modern era occurred in
A more recent example occurred in the 1982 FIFA World Cup, West Germany played Austria in the last match of group B. A West German victory by 1 or 2 goals would result in both teams advancing; any less and Germany was out; any more and Austria was out (and replaced by Algeria, who had just beaten Chile). West Germany attacked hard and scored after 10 minutes. Afterwards, the players then proceeded to just kick the ball around aimlessly for the remainder of the match. Algerian supporters were so angered that they waved banknotes at the players, while a German fan burned his German flag in disgust.[33] By the second half, the ARD commentator Eberhard Stanjek refused any further comment on the game, while the Austrian television commentator Robert Seeger advised viewers to switch off their sets. As a result, FIFA changed its tournament scheduling for subsequent World Cups so that the final pair of matches in each group are played simultaneously.[34][35]
Another example took place on the next-to-last weekend of the
In knockout competitions where the rules require drawn matches to be
Intentional loss to prejudice third-party rival
A team may deliberately lose a match, giving a victory to the opposing team that damages a third-party rival. An example of this occurred in
Similarly, a National Football League (NFL) team has also been accused of throwing its final regular-season game in an attempt to keep a rival out of the playoffs. An alleged example of this was when the San Francisco 49ers, who had clinched a playoff berth, lost their regular-season finale in 1988 to the Los Angeles Rams, thereby knocking the New York Giants (who had defeated the 49ers in the playoffs in both 1985 and 1986, moreover injuring 49ers quarterback Joe Montana in the latter) out of the postseason on the intra-conference record tiebreaker; after the game, Giants quarterback Phil Simms angrily accused the 49ers of "laying down like dogs."[38][39][40]
Increased gate receipts
In addition to the aforementioned incidents of alleged fixing of drawn matches to ensure replays, mutual fixes have sometimes been alleged in "best of X" knockout series where draws are either not possible or very uncommon. Early versions of baseball's World Series were a common target of such allegations. Because the players received a percentage of the gate receipts for postseason games (a privilege they did not enjoy in the regular season), there was a perception that the players had an incentive to fix an equal number of early games in favor of each team so as to ensure the series would run the maximum number of games (or very close thereto).
Partly as an effort to avoid this sort of controversy, early World Series sometimes saw all scheduled games played even if the Series winner was already determined. That did not prove satisfactory since few fans were willing to pay to watch lame duck contests. Eventually, following the controversy at the conclusion of the 1904 season in which the New York Giants boycotted the World Series in part because of dissatisfaction with the financial arrangements surrounding the Series, Major League Baseball agreed to a number of reforms proposed by Giants owner John T. Brush. Among other things, the so-called "Brush Rules" stipulated that the players would only receive a share of ticket revenue from the first four games, thus eliminating any financial incentive for the players to deliberately prolong the World Series.
Abuse of tie-breaking rules
On several occasions, creative use of tie-breaking rules have allegedly led teams to play less than their best.
An example occurred in the
The FIFA tie-breaker, or any goal-differential scheme, can cause problems, too. There have been incidents (especially in
Although the Denmark–Sweden game above led to calls for UEFA to adopt FIFA's tiebreaking formula for future tournaments, it is not clear if this solves the problem; the Argentina-Peru game shows a possible abuse of the FIFA tie-breaker. Proponents of the UEFA tie-breaker argue that it reduces the value of blow-outs, whether these be the result of a much stronger team running up the score or an already-eliminated side allowing an unusually large number of goals. Perhaps the most infamous incident occurred in December 1983 when
Tie-breaking rules played the central role in one of
Prize sharing
A player can concede with the understanding that the opponent will share the prize equally with him or her. Depending on the game, this can lead to disqualification.[46]
Protest action
On occasion, teams tank games as a protest against actions in earlier games. The most lopsided professional football match in history, AS Adema 149–0 SO l'Emyrne, was a result of SO l'Emyrne intentionally losing the game in protest against the referee's action in a previous game.
Conflicts of interest
Sometimes, fixing or tanking may simply be motivated by ownership having controlling interests in two or more teams. In such circumstances, there is often incentive for the common owners' poorer team to deliberately lose to a championship contender, or at least to make roster and/or coaching decisions that increase the contenders' chances of winning.
Such collusion is often not limited to individual games, rather, owners may deliberately try to transfer all of their best players to the more lucrative team. A particularly notorious example occurred in the
Modern
Individual performance in team sports
Bookmakers in the early 21st century accept bets on a far wider range of sports-related propositions than ever before. Thus, a gambling-motivated fix might not necessarily involve any direct attempt to influence the outright result, especially in team sports in which such a fix would require the co-operation (and prerequisitely the knowledge) of many people and/or perhaps would be more likely to arouse suspicion. Fixing the result of a more-particular proposition might be seen as less likely to be noticed. For example, the disgraced former
One such attempt was described by retired footballer
Similarly, in 2010, Pakistani cricket players were accused of committing specific no-ball penalties for the benefit of gamblers.[48] The scandal centred on three Pakistani players accepting bribes from a bookmaker, Mazhar Majeed, during the Lord's test match against England. Following investigations by the News of the World and Scotland Yard, on 1 November 2011, Majeed, Pakistan's captain, Salman Butt, Mohammad Asif and Mohammad Amir were found guilty of conspiracy to cheat at gambling and to accept corrupt payments. As a result, all three of the players were banned by the International Cricket Council (ICC): Butt for ten years, Asif for seven and Amir for five.[49] On 3 November 2011, jail terms were handed down of 30 months for Butt, one year for Asif, six months for Amir and two years eight months for Majeed.[50]
Effect of non-gambling-motivated fixing on wagering
Whenever any serious motivation for teams to manipulate results becomes apparent to the general public, there can be a corresponding effect on betting markets as honest gamblers speculate in
History
Evidence of match fixing has been found throughout recorded history,[51] and the history of match fixing is closely related to the history of illegal gambling.[52]
The
By the end of the 19th century gambling was illegal in most jurisdictions, but that did not stop its widespread practice. Boxing soon became rife with fighters "taking a dive", likely due to boxing being a sport involving individual competitors, which makes its matches much easier to fix without getting caught. Baseball also became plagued by match fixing despite efforts by the National League to stop gambling at its games. Matters finally came to a head in 1919 when eight members of the Chicago White Sox threw the World Series. In an effort to restore confidence, Major League Baseball established the office of the Commissioner of Baseball, and one of Kenesaw Mountain Landis's first acts was to ban all involved players for life.
MLB Rule 21 prohibits players from participating in any form of betting on baseball games, and a lifetime ban for betting on a player's own games. A poster with Rule 21 must be posted on all professional baseball clubhouses.
In the 1990s, match fixing in Asia was especially common. In Malaysia, authorities suggested that 70% of football matches were being manipulated, and corruption scandals in China resulted in gamblers choosing to bet on overseas matches.[52]
Japan
Yaochō (八百長) is a
Economists using statistical analysis have shown very strong evidence of bout fixing in
The sumo association appears to make a distinction between yaocho (the payment of money to secure a result) and koi-ni-yatta mukiryoku zumo (the deliberate performance of underpowered sumo in which an opponent simply lays a match down without exchange of money). The intricacies of Japanese culture, which include subordination of individual gain to the greater good and knowing how to read a situation without the exchange of words (I know my opponent's score, he needs help, and I should automatically give it to him) mean that the latter is almost readily accepted in the sumo world and is also nearly impossible to prove.[55]
Cricket
Some of the most notorious instances of match fixing have been observed in international
The fourth
In July 2017, ex-
In July 2022, it was reported that local authorities had shut down an operation in
Association football
In 2006 the European football powerhouse Juventus FC drew a match against minnows Rimini in a fixed encounter. Following investigation, Juventus Manager Luciano Moggi, Italian Football President Franco Carraro and Vice-president Innocenzo Mazzini had to resign[63] In 2010 several Korean footballers were punished by FIFA with a lifelong ban from all sports for fixing several matches in the Korean League Cup. During the subsequent investigation, many top Korean players were also found to be involved in match fixing after the initial discovery.[64]
Professional wrestling
In professional wrestling, most matches have predetermined results; however, as it is an open secret that professional wrestling is staged, it is not considered match fixing.
Up until the 1920s, professional wrestling was considered a legitimate sport. This did not endure as professional wrestling became identified with modern theatrics or admitted fakery, moving away from actual competition. The "worked", known as "kayfabe" nature of wrestling led critics to deem it an illegitimate sport, particularly in comparison to boxing, amateur wrestling, and, more recently, mixed martial arts.
Many individuals began to doubt the legitimacy of wrestling after the retirement of Frank Gotch in 1913.[65] As wrestling's popularity was diving around the same time that Major League Baseball had its own legitimacy issues, wrestling started to take on a more worked approach while still appearing as a legitimate sport, beginning with the Gold Dust Trio of the 1920s.[65] Even after the formation of the National Wrestling Alliance in 1948, wrestling continued to have legitimacy issues.
Nevertheless, wrestling was still regulated by state athletic commissions in the United States well into the 1980s, until Vince McMahon, owner of the World Wrestling Federation, convinced the state of New Jersey in 1989 that wrestling was considered a form of entertainment (or "sports entertainment", as McMahon used) rather than as a legitimate sport, and that it should not be regulated by state athletic commissions.[66] The move was seen as more of a relief to those who had questioned wrestling's legitimacy, since at least one major company (in this case, the WWF) was now publicly willing to admit that wrestling was staged; however, the move did anger many wrestling purists.[66]
Due to the lingering legitimacy issues that surrounded wrestling from the 1910s until the 1980s, gambling was generally not allowed on wrestling matches while it was still considered a legitimate sport. Despite wrestling having openly acknowledged that the results are predetermined for years, since the late 2000s gambling has increased on wrestling events, though the maximum bets are kept low due to the matches being predetermined.[67][68] By contrast, when the WWF co-founded an American football league with NBC known as the XFL (which played for a single season in 2001), the league had to emphasize that its games were not staged in this manner (despite drawing upon wrestling, and in particular the WWF's "Attitude Era", in its overall image and presentation), and specifically promoted the willingness of Las Vegas bookmakers to take wagers on the games as evidence of its legitimacy.[69][70]
Quiz shows
In the 1950s, the producers of several televised
The most infamous example of this strategy came when champion
The cancellation of the competing quiz Dotto under similar allegations prompted a U.S. government investigation into both it and Twenty-One. The investigation similarly revealed that Revlon—the sponsor of The $64,000 Question—had instructed the show's producers to balance its questions more favorably towards contestants they felt would be more popular among viewers (although it stopped short of outright rigging games to the same extent as Twenty-One). The scandal resulted in regulations being implemented to prohibit the rigging of game shows and other contests by broadcasters.[72][73][74][75]
Esports
Match fixing controversies have also emerged in
Protection against manipulation
By monitoring the pre-match betting markets it is sometimes possible to detect planned match fixing. It is also possible to detect on-going match manipulation by looking at the in-game betting markets. Several federations have employed services that provide such systems for detecting match manipulation.[4] Prior to the 2016 MLB season, Major League Baseball (MLB) hired Genius Sports, a sports technology company specialising in integrity, to monitor the betting patterns on all of their games.[78] In addition, Interpol monitors and publishes major developments in match-fixing and corruption in sports around the world.[79]
In addition, several federations run integrity tours where players and officials participate in educational workshops on how match fixing work and how they are prevented.[80]
See also
- Bookmaker
- Convention on the Manipulation of Sports Competitions
- List of match fixing incidents
- Match fixing in association football
- Match fixing in cricket
- List of cricketers banned for match fixing
- Organized crime
- Over–under (both teams combined score betting)
- Point shaving (attempts to manipulate a match score based on the point spread)
- Sports betting
- Spot-fixing (attempts to manipulate certain portions of a match)
- Team orders
References
- ^ * Bieler, Des (21 February 2018). "Mark Cuban fined $600,000 for saying his Mavericks plan on 'tanking'". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
- Aldridge, David (5 March 2018). "Mark Cuban's tanking talk (and NBA-issued fine) speaks of larger issues in league". NBA.com. National Basketball Association (NBA). Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
- Gold-Smith, Josh (2016). "Coyotes GM admits tanking for shot at McDavid last season". theScore Inc. Archivedfrom the original on 12 August 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
- Wolff, Alexander (30 August 1993). "Winning by Losing". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
- Wyshynski, Greg (2 March 2015). "Did Ron Wilson admit Capitals GM told him to tank season?". Yahoo Sports. Archivedfrom the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
Wilson said he was approached by his general manager – at that time, George McPhee – to tank the season.
- ^ * "Forsberg file closed". IIHF.com. Zürich, Switzerland: International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). 25 December 2011. Archived from the original on 30 July 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
- Bieler, Des (24 February 2015). "Girls basketball teams try to lose game to each other, both get postseason ban". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
- Kelson, Ben (1 August 2012). "Olympic Ideal Takes Beating in Badminton". The New York Times. London, England, United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
- Staff and agencies in London (1 August 2012). "Olympic badminton players charged with trying to lose their games". TheGuardian.com. Archivedfrom the original on 28 November 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
- ^ Myers Gallardo, Alfonso (2015). Corrupción en el deporte. Represión penal ¿necesaria?, en Carrillo, Ana & Myers Gallardo, Alfonso (Edts.) "Corrupción y delincuencia económica: prevención, represión y recuperación de activos", Universidad de Salamanca, Ratio Legis, pp. 195–216
- ^ a b "Fixers beware". Gambling Insider. Archived from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
- ISBN 9780771041389.
- ^ Likaista peliä ja rahaa, Voima 9/2017 page.30
- ISBN 978-0674543317.
- ^ Martin Williamson (2010). "The race that was rigged?". Archived from the original on 2012-08-09. Retrieved 2012-08-09.
- ^ a b Sieff, Kevin (2013-10-16). "Game, Set, Fix". Washington Post. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
- ^ "FAQ: NBA Play-In Tournament". www.nba.com. Archived from the original on 2022-04-04. Retrieved 2022-03-10.
- ^ Farber, Michael (March 6, 2006). "Swede Success". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved April 10, 2015.
- ^ "Indonesia And Thailand Involved In Elephant Football In 1998 AFF Cup". VOI - Waktunya Merevolusi Pemberitaan. Archived from the original on 2022-03-10. Retrieved 2022-03-10.
- ^ Georgina Turner and Will Roberts (14 July 2004). "Was Zidane the first on-pitch puker?". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 22 June 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
- ^ Wallace Matthews (February 19, 2012). "Cashman: OK, we tanked in 2010". Archived from the original on December 1, 2022. Retrieved December 1, 2022.
- ^ "Cashman: Yankees "conceded" 2010 AL East title to Rays". Tampa Bay Times. February 19, 2012. Archived from the original on December 1, 2022. Retrieved December 1, 2022.
- ^ "Indonesian official: 8 badminton players disqualified from Olympic doubles for trying to lose". Washington Post. 1 August 2012. Archived from the original on 7 August 2012.
- ^ "Olympics badminton: Eight women disqualified from doubles". BBC. 1 August 2012. Archived from the original on 3 September 2012. Retrieved 13 February 2018.
- ^ "Expelled Olympic badminton players win gold for lack of subtlety". National Post. 1 August 2012. Archived from the original on 2 August 2012.
- ^ "Martin Rogers: Japan's women's soccer team plays to intentional draw". Yahoo. 1 August 2012. Archived from the original on 2 April 2022. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
- ^ a b c d Kreager, Tom (February 23, 2015). "Riverdale, Smyrna girls basketball teams removed from postseason". The Daily News Journal. Murfreesboro, Tennessee. Archived from the original on February 24, 2015. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
- ^ a b Bonesteel, Matt (February 25, 2015). "Here's why two Tennessee girls' basketball teams both tried to lose". Early Lead. The Washington Post. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved March 19, 2015.
- ^ "To rest or not to rest? Panthers and Patriots face the question". 2015-12-21. Archived from the original on 2019-09-18. Retrieved 2019-05-18.
- ^ Bondy, Filip (May 22, 2005). "The Draft That Changed It All. Tanks to '84, the lottery was born". NYDailyNews.com. New York: Daily News, L.P. Archived from the original on May 25, 2024. Retrieved August 22, 2009.
- ^ DuPree, David (June 25, 2007). "25 drafts, dozens of stars, one Michael". USA Today. Gannett Co. Inc. Archived from the original on January 23, 2012. Retrieved August 22, 2009.
- ^ Helin, Kurt (September 28, 2017). "NBA owners pass lottery reform, new rules on resting players". ProBasketballTalk. Archived from the original on September 29, 2017. Retrieved September 29, 2017.
- ^ John Hollinger (Oct 7, 2022). "The Wembanyama Effect: How the buzz about Victor will influence NBA tanking and front office thinking this season". The Athletic. Archived from the original on May 29, 2023. Retrieved October 7, 2022.
- ^ "Sabres unhappy after fans cheer Gagner's winning goal in OT that gives Coyotes 4–3 win". NHL.com. Archived from the original on 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2015-04-11.
- ^ Athletic NHL staff (Dec 22, 2022). "Tanking for Connor Bedard: Roundtable on the NHL teams with the best shot". The Athletic. Archived from the original on January 13, 2023. Retrieved December 23, 2022.
- ^ "Porto chief up on referee bribery charges". ESPN. Archived from the original on 2011-04-27. Retrieved 2008-09-05.
- ^ ISBN 978-0786436545. Retrieved October 30, 2014.
- ^ Rego, Nilda (January 24, 2010). "Days Gone By: Earp's controversial call gets upheld in court". Inside Bay Area. Archived from the original on October 24, 2014. Retrieved October 24, 2014.
Part 2 of 2
- ^ "Asserts He Fixed the Sharkey "Foul"". The San Francisco Call. August 14, 1905. p. 11. Archived from the original on October 31, 2014. Retrieved October 31, 2014.
- ^ a b Booth, Lawrence; Smyth, Rob (2004-08-11). "What's the dodgiest game in football history?". The Guardian. Manchester. Archived from the original on 2013-12-14. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
- ^ "1986 FIFA World Cup: Restoring Mexico's pride and the defining moments". www.fifa.com. Retrieved 2024-05-18.
- ^ published, Chris Hunt (2014-06-03). "Olé! The chaotic story behind a 1986 World Cup which had everything". fourfourtwo.com. Retrieved 2024-05-18.
- ^ Ponce de León, R. (2000-05-01). "Mummery at the Sánchez Pizjuán. An indolent Sevilla lets Oviedo win in a shameful match". El País. Seville. Archived from the original on 2020-11-05. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
- ^ "Frod Olsen, former Sevilla goalkeeper, admits they tanked in 2000 to damage Betis". Mundo Deportivo. Barcelona. 2012-07-11. Archived from the original on 2020-11-05. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
- ^ Miller, Ira (March 31, 2004). "Can't blame 'em for not trying". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on February 13, 2011. Retrieved November 23, 2010.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2024-05-18.
- ^ "First NFL postgame prayer circle: 25 years later". ESPN.com. 2015-12-03. Retrieved 2024-05-18.
- ^ Andrew Das (18 June 2012). "Italy Is Shocked — Shocked! — by Talk of a Fix". New York Times. Archived from the original on 19 June 2012. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
- ISBN 9781936239788. Archivedfrom the original on 12 August 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2020.
- ^ Winner, David (21 June 2008). "A dangerous game". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-11. Retrieved 4 September 2020.
- ^ Hersey, Will (14 June 2018). "Remembering Argentina 1978: The Dirtiest World Cup Of All Time". Esquire. Archived from the original on 28 August 2020. Retrieved 4 September 2020.
- ^ Bungs and bribes football can't kick this habit Archived 2018-06-13 at the Wayback Machine (retrieved 12 October 2011)
- ^ "Unsporting Conduct — Improperly Determining a Winner and Bribery". November 2013. Archived from the original on 4 November 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
- ^ [1] Archived September 17, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Marks, Vic (29 August 2010). "Pakistan embroiled in no-ball betting scandal against England". London: The Observer, UK. Archived from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
- ^ Hoult, Nick (2016-07-12). "Pakistan spot-fixing shame: The inside story on the day the home of cricket became engulfed in scandal". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 2016-08-11.
- ^ a b "Salman Butt and Pakistan bowlers jailed for no-ball plot". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2018-10-30. Retrieved 2016-08-11.
- (PDF) from the original on 29 May 2020.
- ^ a b Paoli, Letizia (2014). The Oxford Handbook of Organized Crime. Oxford University Press. p. 414.
- ^ Owen Jarus (Apr 17, 2014). "The Fix Was in for Ancient Wrestling Match". Discovery News. Archived from the original on April 20, 2014. Retrieved April 18, 2014.
- ^ MARK DUGGAN AND STEVEN D. LEVITT (December 2002). "Winning Isn't Everything: Corruption in Sumo Wrestling" (PDF). THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2005.
- ^ Gould, Chris (2011). "Sumo Through the Wrestlers' Eyes". Amazon.
- ^ "England beat Pakistan in tarnished Test to win series". BBC Sport. 29 August 2010. Archived from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
- ^ "Sreesanth: Former India bowler banned for life for spot-fixing". BBC. 2013-09-13. Archived from the original on 2014-09-12. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
- ^ Gollapudi, Nagraj (18 October 2017). "Kerala High Court restores Sreesanth's life ban". ESPNcricinfo. ESPN.com. Archived from the original on 9 February 2019. Retrieved 7 February 2019.
- ^ "Former Sri Lanka minister alleges 2011 Cricket World Cup final was fixed; Jayawardene, Sangakkara demand evidence". The New Indian Express. 18 June 2020. Archived from the original on 2021-04-11. Retrieved 2021-06-21.
- ^ "ICC rubbishes allegations of match-fixing in 2011 World Cup". The Indian Express. 2020-07-04. Archived from the original on 2021-04-11. Retrieved 2021-06-21.
- ^ "Sri Lanka police calls off 2011 World Cup final fixing probe". Hindustan Times. 2020-07-03. Archived from the original on 2021-04-11. Retrieved 2021-06-21.
- ^ "India: Police rumble fake 'IPL' cricket league". BBC News. 2022-07-11. Archived from the original on 2022-07-11. Retrieved 2022-07-11.
- ^ "Calciopoli Scandal That Rocked Italy". BBC Sports Reporter Shamoon Hafez. bbc.com. 5 October 2019. Archived from the original on 2 September 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
- ^ "FIFA Suspends Choi for Match Fixing". The Korea Times. The Korea Times. 16 March 2012. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
- ^ a b Thesz, Lou. Hooker. p. 45.
- ^ a b "Wrestling with Success". Sports Illustrated. 25 March 1991. Archived from the original on 23 October 2009.
- ^ Barry Petchesky (5 April 2011). "The Quirks Of Gambling On Professional Wrestling". Deadspin. Archived from the original on 1 November 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014.
- ^ Barry Petchesky (15 July 2013). "A Redditor Has Been Leaking WWE Outcomes [Update: WWE Response]". Deadspin. Archived from the original on 1 November 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014.
- ^ "Xfl Bets On Gambling To Bring Out Fans". Orlando Sentinel. Tribune Publishing. Archived from the original on 2017-03-12. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
- ^ "Good, Honest Football: Re-Watching the XFL". Mental Floss. 2014-09-18. Archived from the original on 2017-02-22. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
- ^ "The American Experience | Quiz Show Scandal | People & Events | Dan Enright". www.pbs.org. Archived from the original on 2017-03-21. Retrieved 2017-02-08.
- ^ a b c d e "Encyclopedia of Television – Quiz Show Scandals". The Museum of Broadcast Communications. Archived from the original on 2014-05-23. Retrieved 2016-10-15.
- ^ OCLC 652498304.
- ^ "Who Cheats on a Quiz Show? How the 1950s Quiz Show Scandals Shaped TV". Boston.com. 2014-12-10. Archived from the original on 2018-10-08. Retrieved 2018-11-21.
- ^ Sandomir, Richard (23 April 2017). "Albert Freedman, Producer of Rigged 1950s Quiz Show, Dies at 95". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 2018-11-21.
- from the original on 2019-10-10. Retrieved 2019-11-04.
- ^ "New evidence points to match-fixing at highest level of American Counter-Strike". Dot Esports. 2015-01-16. Archived from the original on 2019-08-28. Retrieved 2019-11-04.
- ^ "The Washington Post". The Washington Post. 30 May 2016. Archived from the original on 12 August 2023. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
- ^ "INTERPOL: Unfolding Match Fixing Investigations From Portugal Football, Nepal Cricket To Chinese Snooker". Archived from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
- ^ "Do Fantasy Sports Spell The End Of Corruption In Athletics?". TechCrunch. 22 October 2015. Archived from the original on 25 November 2015. Retrieved 29 November 2015.