Mugger crocodile
Mugger crocodile | |
---|---|
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Reptilia |
Clade: | Archosauromorpha |
Clade: | Archosauriformes |
Order: | Crocodilia |
Family: | Crocodylidae |
Genus: | Crocodylus |
Species: | C. palustris
|
Binomial name | |
Crocodylus palustris (
Lesson, 1831)[2] | |
Distribution of mugger crocodile | |
Synonyms[3] | |
|
The mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) is a medium-sized broad-
The mugger crocodile evolved at least 4.19 million years ago and has been a symbol for the fructifying and destructive powers of the rivers since the Vedic period. It was first scientifically described in 1831 and is protected by law in Iran, India and Sri Lanka. Since 1982, it has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Outside protected areas, it is threatened by conversion of natural habitats, gets entangled in fishing nets and is killed in human–wildlife conflict situations and in traffic accidents.
Taxonomy and evolution
Crocodilus palustris was the
- C. bombifrons by British Museum of Natural History.[5]
- C. trigonops also by Gray in 1844 for a young mugger specimen from India.[5]
Evolution
analysis of 12 concatenated mitochondrial DNA sequences[6][16] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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based on Illumina sequencing of mitogenomes[17] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Below
Crocodylidae |
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(crown group) |
Characteristics
Mugger crocodile hatchlings are pale olive with black spots. Adults are dark olive to grey or brown. The head is rough without any ridges and has large
The mugger crocodile is considered a medium-sized crocodilian, but has the broadest
The largest
Distribution and habitat
The mugger crocodile occurs in southern Iran, Pakistan, Nepal, India and Sri Lanka up to an elevation of 420 m (1,380 ft).[2] It inhabits freshwater lakes, rivers and marshes, and prefers slow-moving, shallow water bodies. It also thrives in artificial reservoirs and irrigation canals.[19]
In Iran, the mugger occurs along rivers in
In Pakistan, a small population lives in 21 ponds around
In Nepal's
In India, it occurs in:
- Kutch[36]
- Madhya Pradesh's National Chambal Sanctuary[37][38]
- Corbett Tiger Reserve and Lansdowne Forest Division[39]
- Uttar Pradesh's Katarniaghat and Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuaries[40]
- Odisha's Simlipal National Park and along Mahanadi and Sabari Rivers[41][42] In 2019, 82 individuals were recorded in the river systems of Simlipal National Park.[43]
- Telangana's Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary[34]
- Maharashtra's Kadavi and Warna Rivers,[44] and Savitri River in Raigad District.[45]
- Goa's Salaulim Reservoir, Zuari River and in small lakes[34]
- Karnataka along
- Kerala's Parambikulam Reservoir and Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary[34][46]
- Tamil Nadu's
In Sri Lanka, it occurs in Wilpattu, Yala and Bundala National Parks.[19][48] Between 1991 and 1996, it was recorded in another 102 localities.[49]
In
Behaviour and ecology
The mugger crocodile is a powerful swimmer that uses its tail and hind feet to move forward, change direction and submerge. It belly-walks, with its belly touching ground, at the bottom of waterbodies and on land. During the hot dry season, it walks over land at night to find suitable wetlands and spends most of the day submerged in water. During the cold season it basks on riverbanks, individuals are tolerant of others during this period.
Like all crocodilians, the mugger crocodile is a
Hunting and diet
The mugger crocodile preys on fish, snakes, turtles, birds and mammals including monkeys, squirrels, rodents, otters and dogs. It also scavenges on dead animals. During dry seasons, muggers walk many kilometers over land in search of water and prey.[53] Hatchlings feed mainly on insects such as beetles, but also on crabs and shrimp and on vertebrates later on.[54][55] It seizes and drags potential prey approaching watersides into the water, when the opportunity arises. Adult muggers were observed feeding on a flapshell turtle and a tortoise.[56][57] Subadult and adult muggers favour fish, but also prey on small to medium-sized ungulates up to the size of chital (Axis axis).[58] In Bardia National Park, a mugger was observed caching a chital kill beneath the roots of a tree and returning to its basking site. A part of the deer was still wedged among the roots on the next day.[30] Muggers have also been observed while preying and feeding on a python.[55] At the Chambal River, muggers have attacked water buffaloes, cattle and goats.[59] In Yala National Park, a mugger was observed killing a large Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), of which it devoured pieces over several hours.[60]
Tool use
Mugger crocodiles have been documented using lures to hunt birds.
Reproduction
Female muggers obtain
Healthy hatchlings develop at a temperature range of 28–33 °C (82–91 °F). Sex ratio of hatched eggs depends on incubation temperature and exposure of nests to sunshine. Only females develop at constant temperatures of 28–31 °C (82–88 °F), and only males at 32.5 °C (90.5 °F). Percentage of females in a clutch decreases at constant temperatures between 32.6 and 33 °C (90.7 and 91.4 °F), and of males between 31 and 32.4 °C (87.8 and 90.3 °F). Temperature in natural nests is not constant but varies between nights and days. Foremost females hatch in natural early nests when initial temperature inside nests ranges between 26.4 and 28.9 °C (79.5 and 84.0 °F). The percentage of male hatchlings increases in late nests located in sunny sites.[63] Hatchlings are 26–31 cm (10–12 in) long and weigh 75 g (2.6 oz) on average when one month old. They grow about 4.25 cm (1.67 in) per month and reach a body length of 90–170 cm (35–67 in) when two years old.[20]
Sympatric predators
The distribution of the mugger crocodile overlaps with that of the saltwater crocodile in a few coastal areas, but it barely enters
The Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) occasionally fights mugger crocodiles off prey and rarely preys on adult mugger crocodiles in Ranthambore National Park.[70] The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo leo) sometimes preys on crocodiles on the banks of the Kamleshwar Dam in Gir National Park during dry, hot months.[71]
Threats
The mugger crocodile is threatened by habitat destruction because of conversion of natural habitats for agricultural and industrial use. As humans encroach into its habitat, the incidents of conflict increase. Muggers are entangled in fishing equipment and drown, and are killed in areas where fishermen perceive them as competition.[2] Major wetlands in Pakistan were
In Gujarat, two muggers were found killed, one in 2015 with the tail cut off and internal organs missing; the other in 2017, also with the tail cut off. The missing body parts indicate that the crocodiles were sacrificed in
Conservation
The mugger crocodile is listed in
In India, it has been protected since 1972 under Schedule I of the
Since large muggers occasionally take livestock, this leads to conflict with local people living close to mugger habitat. In Maharashtra, local people are compensated for loss of close relatives and livestock.[55][76] Local people in Baluchestan respect the mugger crocodile as a water living creature and do not harm it. If an individual kills livestock, the owner is compensated for the loss. The mugger crocodile is translocated in severe conflict cases.[75]
A total of 1,193 captive bred muggers were released to restock populations in 28 protected areas in India between 1978 and 1992. Production of new offspring was halted by the Indian Government in 1994.[2]
In culture
The Sanskrit word मकर 'makara' refers to the crocodile and a mythical crocodile-like animal.[77] The Hindi word for crocodile is मगर 'magar'.[78] In English language, both names 'mugger' and 'magar' were used around the turn of the 20th century.[79][80][81] The names 'marsh crocodile' and 'broad-snouted crocodile' have been used since the late 1930s.[82]
The crocodile is acknowledged as the
The traditional biography of the Indian saint
A fable from the
See also
- Crocodiles in India
- List of reptiles of South Asia
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External links
- New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
.
- Species Crocodylus palustris at The Reptile Database
- "Crocodylus palustris Lesson 1831 (mugger crocodile)". Paleobiology Database.
- "Crocodiles moved from world's tallest statue". BBC News. 2019. Retrieved 2019-01-26.
- "Eight Crocodiles, Two Tortoises, Australian Parrots Seized; Two Held". Mid-Day. 2018.
- "Marsh crocodiles in good condition in Iran". Tehran Times Daily Newspaper. 2018.
- Nelson, D. (2011). "Fifteen-foot Bengali crocodile claims king of jungle title from tiger". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12.