Norodom Sihanouk
Norodom Sihanouk | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
King of Cambodia | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
First reign | 24 April 1941 – 2 March 1955 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Coronation | 3 May 1941 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Predecessor | Sisowath Monivong | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Successor | Norodom Suramarit | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Prime ministers | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Second reign | 24 September 1993 – 7 October 2004 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Predecessor | Monarchy restored; Himself as Chief of State | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Successor | Norodom Sihamoni | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Prime ministers | See list | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cambodia, French Indochina | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Died | 15 October 2012 Beijing, China | (aged 89)||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Burial | 13 July 2014 , Royal Palace of Cambodia (interment of ashes) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Spouse | See list
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Issue Detail | See list
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Theravada Buddhism
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Education | Cavalry School | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Occupations |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Political party |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Website | www | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Signature | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Norodom Sihanouk
Sihanouk was the only child of Prince
Officially
Sihanouk went into exile again and in 1981 formed FUNCINPEC, a resistance party. The following year, he became president of the
Between 1941 and 2006, Sihanouk produced and directed 50 films, some of which he acted in. The films, later described as being of low quality, often featured nationalistic elements, as did a number of the songs he wrote. Some of his songs were about his wife Monique, the nations neighboring Cambodia, and the communist leaders who supported him in his exile. In the 1980s, Sihanouk held concerts for diplomats in New York City. He also participated in concerts at his palace during his second reign. Sihanouk is remembered for his role in shaping modern Cambodia, particularly in leading the country to independence, although his reputation was damaged by his association with the Khmer Rouge in the 1970s.
Early life and first reign
Norodom Sihanouk was the only child born of the union between Norodom Suramarit and Sisowath Kossamak.[1] His parents, who heeded the Royal Court Astrologer's advice that he risked dying at a young age if he was raised under parental care, placed him under the care of Kossamak's grandmother, Pat. When Pat died, Kossamak brought Sihanouk to live with his paternal grandfather, Norodom Sutharot. Sutharot delegated parenting responsibilities to his daughter, Norodom Ket Kanyamom.[2]
Sihanouk received his primary education at the
When the reigning king Monivong died on 23 April 1941 the
Pre-independence and self-rule
As prime minister, Sihanouk revoked a decree issued by the last
A joint French-Cambodian commission was set up after that to draft Cambodia's constitution,
In early 1949, Sihanouk traveled to Paris with his parents to negotiate with the French government for more autonomy for Cambodia. The modus vivendi was replaced by a new Franco-Khmer treaty, which recognised Cambodia as "independent" within the French Union.[19] In practice, the treaty granted only limited self-rule to Cambodia. While Cambodia was given free rein in managing its foreign ministry and, to a lesser extent, its defence, most of the other ministries remained under French control.[20]
Meanwhile, dissenting legislators from the national assembly attacked the government led by prime minister Penn Nouth over its failure to resolve deepening financial and corruption problems plaguing the country. The dissenting legislators, led by Yem Sambaur, who had defected from the Democrat party in November 1948,[21] deposed Penn Nouth.[22] Yem Sambaur replaced him, but his appointment did not sit well with the Democrats, who in turn pressured Sihanouk to dissolve the national assembly and hold elections.[23]
Sihanouk, who by now had tired of the political squabbling, dissolved the assembly in September 1949,[24] but opted to rule by decree for the next two years before general elections were held, which the Democrats won.[25] In October 1951, Thanh returned to Cambodia and was received by 100,000 supporters, a spectacle which Sihanouk saw as an affront to his regal authority.[26] Thanh disappeared six months later, presumably to join the Khmer Issarak.[27] Sihanouk ordered the Democrat-led government to arrest Thanh but was ignored.[28]
Subsequently, civil demonstrations against the monarchy and the French broke out in the countryside,
In January 1953, Sihanouk re-appointed Penn Nouth as prime minister before leaving for France. Once there, Sihanouk wrote to French President Vincent Auriol requesting that he grant Cambodia full independence, citing widespread anti-French sentiment among the Cambodian populace.[31] Auriol deferred Sihanouk's request to the French Commissioner for Overseas Territories, Jean Letourneau, who promptly rejected it. Subsequently, Sihanouk traveled to Canada and the United States, where he gave radio interviews to present his case.[32]
He took advantage of the prevailing anti-communist sentiment in those countries, arguing that Cambodia faced a Communist threat similar to that of the Viet Minh in Vietnam, and that the solution was to grant full independence to Cambodia.[32] Sihanouk returned to Cambodia in June 1953, taking up residence in Siem Reap.[33] He organised public rallies calling for Cambodians to fight for independence, and formed a citizenry militia which attracted about 130,000 recruits.[34]
In August 1953, France agreed to cede control over judicial and
At the same time, Sihanouk's relations with the governing Democrat party remained strained, as they were wary of his growing political influence.[37] To counter Democrat opposition, Sihanouk held a national referendum to gauge public approval for his efforts to seek national independence.[38] While the results showed 99.8 percent approval, Australian historian Milton Osborne noted that open balloting was carried out and voters were cowed into casting an approval vote under police surveillance.[39]
Sangkum era
Abdication and entry into politics
On 2 March 1955, Sihanouk suddenly abdicated the throne[40] and was in turn succeeded by his father, Suramarit.[3] His abdication surprised everyone, including his own parents.[41] In his abdication speech, Sihanouk explained that he was abdicating in order to extricate himself from the "intrigues" of palace life and allow easier access to common folk as an "ordinary citizen". According to Osborne, Sihanouk's abdication earned him the freedom to pursue politics while continuing to enjoy the deference that he had received from his subjects when he was king.[42] He also feared being cast aside by the government after discovering that his popularity was manufactured by his own officials.[43][41]
In April 1955, before leaving for a summit with Asian and African states in Bandung, Indonesia, Sihanouk announced the formation of his own political party, the Sangkum, and expressed interest in participating in the general elections slated to be held in September 1955. While the Sangkum was, in effect, a political party, Sihanouk argued that the Sangkum should be seen as a political "organisation", and explained that he could accommodate people with differing political orientations on the sole condition that they pledged fealty to the monarchy.[44] The creation of the Sangkum was seen as a move to dissolve the political parties.[45][46]
Sangkum was based on four small, monarchist, rightist parties, including the 'Victorious North-East' party of
Premiership (1955–1960)
Once in office, Sihanouk introduced several constitutional changes, including extending suffrage to women, adopting Khmer as the sole official language of the country[53] and making Cambodia a constitutional monarchy by vesting policy-making powers in the prime minister rather than the king.[54] He viewed socialism as an ideal concept for establishing social equality and fostering national cohesion within newly independent Cambodia. In March 1956, he embarked on a national programme of "Buddhist socialism", promoting socialist principles on the one hand while maintaining the kingdom's Buddhist culture on the other.[55]
Between 1955 and 1960, Sihanouk resigned and retook the post of prime minister several times, citing fatigue caused by overwork.[56] The National Assembly nominated experienced politicians such as Sim Var and San Yun to become prime minister whenever Sihanouk took leave, but they similarly relinquished their posts each time, several months into their term,[57] as cabinet ministers repeatedly disagreed over public policy matters.[58]
In May 1955, Sihanouk had accepted military aid from the US.[59] The following January, when he was in the Philippines on a state visit, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) operatives attempted to sway him into placing Cambodia under Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) protection.[60] Subsequently, Sihanouk began to suspect that the US was attempting to undermine his government and that it was lending covert support to the Democratic party, now without parliamentary representation, for that purpose.[61] Sihanouk developed a good impression of China, whose premier, Zhou Enlai, gave him a warm reception on his first visit there in February 1956. They signed a friendship treaty in which China promised US$40 million in economic aid to Cambodia.[62]
When Sihanouk returned from China, Sarit Thanarat and Ngo Dinh Diem, leaders of Thailand and South Vietnam, respectively, both with pro-American sympathies, started to accuse him of pro-Communist sympathies. South Vietnam briefly imposed a trade embargo on Cambodia, preventing trading ships from travelling up the Mekong river to Phnom Penh.[63] While Sihanouk professed that he was pursuing a policy of neutrality, Sarit and Diem remained distrustful of him, more so after he established formal diplomatic relations with China in 1958.[64]
The Democratic party continued to criticize the Sangkum and Sihanouk in their newspaper, much to Sihanouk's consternation.[65] In August 1957, Sihanouk finally lost patience, calling out Democrat leaders for a debate. Five of them attended. At the debate, held at the Royal Palace, Sihanouk spoke in a belligerent tone, challenging the Democrat leaders to present evidence of malfeasance in his government and inviting them to join the Sangkum. The Democrat leaders gave hesitant responses, and, according to American historian David P. Chandler, this gave the audience the impression that they were disloyal to the monarchy.[61]
The debate led to the effective demise of the Democratic party, as its leaders were subsequently beaten up by government soldiers, with Sihanouk's tacit approval.[66] With the Democrats vanquished, Sihanouk focused on preparing for general elections, slated to be held in March 1958. He drafted left-wing politicians, including Hou Yuon, Hu Nim and Chau Seng, to stand as Sangkum candidates, with a view to winning left-wing support from the Pracheachon.[67] The Pracheachon on their part fielded five candidates for the elections. However, four of them withdrew, as they were prevented by the national police from holding any election rallies. When voting took place, the Sangkum won all seats in the national assembly.[68]
In December 1958
Six months later, on 31 August 1959, a small packaged lacquer gift fitted with a
Initial years as Head of State (1960–1965)
Suramarit, Sihanouk's father, died on 3 April 1960[78] after several months of poor health that Sihanouk blamed upon the shock that his father had received from the parcel bomb attack.[75] The following day, the Cambodian Crown Council met to choose Monireth as regent.[79] Over the next two months, Sihanouk introduced constitutional amendments to create the new post of Head of State of Cambodia, which provided ceremonial powers equivalent to that of the king. A referendum held on 5 June 1960 approved Sihanouk's proposals, and Sihanouk was formally appointed Head of State on 14 June 1960.[80][81] As the head of state, Sihanouk took over various ceremonial responsibilities of the king, such as holding public audiences[82] and leading the Royal Ploughing Ceremony. At the same time, he continued to play an active role in politics as Sangkum's leader.[83]
In 1961, Pracheachon's spokesperson, Non Suon, criticized Sihanouk for failing to tackle inflation, unemployment, and corruption in the country. Non Suon's criticisms gave Sihanouk the impetus to arrest Pracheachon leaders, and, according to him, he had discovered plans by their party to monitor local political developments on behalf of foreign powers.[84] That same year Sihanouk attended the 1st Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement, making Cambodia one of the founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement. In May 1962 Tou Samouth, Pracheachon's secretary-general, disappeared, and its ideological ally, the Communist Party of Kampuchea, suspected that Samouth had been secretly captured and killed by police.[85] Sihanouk nevertheless allowed Sangkum's left-wing politicians to run again in the 1962 general elections, which they all won.[86] He even appointed two left-wing politicians, Hou Yuon and Khieu Samphan, as secretaries for planning and commerce, respectively, after the election.[87]
In November 1962, Sihanouk called on the US to stop supporting the
When Sarit, Diem, and US president John F. Kennedy died in November and December 1963, Sihanouk rejoiced over their deaths, as he accused them of attempting to destabilise Cambodia. He organised concerts and granted civil servants extra leave time to celebrate the occasion. When the US government protested Sihanouk's celebrations, he responded by recalling the Cambodian ambassador to the US, Nong Kimny.[92]
In early 1964, Sihanouk signed a secret agreement with North Vietnam and the Viet Cong, allowing Chinese military aid meant for them to be delivered through Sihanoukville's port. In turn, the Cambodian army would be paid for delivering food supplies to the Viet Cong, and at the same time skim off 10 percent of all military hardware supplies.[93] In addition, he also allowed the Viet Cong to build a trail through eastern Cambodia, so that their troops could receive war supplies from North Vietnam. The trail later became known as the Sihanouk Trail.[94] When the US learned of Viet Cong presence in eastern Cambodia, they started a bombing campaign,[95] spurring Sihanouk to sever diplomatic ties with the US in May 1965.[94] As a result of this secret agreement, Communist countries, including China, the Soviet Union, and Czechoslovakia, provided military aid to Cambodia.[96]
Continued leadership as Head of State (1966–1970)
In September 1966,
In April 1967, the
In August 1967, Sihanouk sent to China his Foreign Minister, Norodom Phurissara, who unsuccessfully urged Zhou to stop the Chinese embassy from disseminating Communist propaganda.[107] In response, Sihanouk closed the Cambodia–Chinese Friendship Association in September 1967. When the Chinese government protested,[108] Sihanouk threatened to close the Chinese embassy in Cambodia.[109] Zhou stepped in to placate Sihanouk,[110] and compromised by instructing its embassy to send its publications to Cambodia's information ministry for vetting prior to distribution.[109]
As relations with China worsened, Sihanouk pursued
Silhanouk told Bowles that he disliked the Vietnamese as a people, saying he had no love for any Vietnamese, red, blue, North or South".[111] Kenton Clymer notes that this statement "cannot reasonably be construed to mean that Sihanouk approved of the intensive, ongoing B-52 bombing raids" the US launched in eastern Cambodia beginning in March 1969 as part of Operation Menu, adding: "In any event, no one asked him. ... Sihanouk was never asked to approve the B-52 bombings, and he never gave his approval."[114] The bombing forced the Viet Cong to flee from their jungle sanctuaries and seek refuge in populated towns and villages.[115]
As a result, Sihanouk became concerned that Cambodia might get drawn into fighting in the Vietnam War. In June 1969, he extended diplomatic recognition to the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (PRGSV),[116] hoping that he could get the Viet Cong troops under its charge to leave Cambodia should they win the war. At the same time, he also openly admitted the presence of Viet Cong troops in Cambodia for the first time,[117] prompting the US to restore formal diplomatic relations with Cambodia three months later.[118]
As the Cambodian economy was stagnating due to systemic corruption,[119] Sihanouk opened two casinos – in Phnom Penh and Sihanoukville – in January 1969.[120] While the casinos satisfied his aim of generating state revenues of up to 700 million riels in that year, it also caused a sharp increase in the number of bankruptcies and suicides.[120] In August 1969 Lon Nol was reappointed as Prime Minister, with Sisowath Sirik Matak as his deputy. Two months later, Lon Nol left Cambodia to seek medical treatment, leaving Sirik Matak to run the government. Between October and December 1969, Sirik Matak instituted several policy changes that ran contrary to Sihanouk's wishes, such as allowing private banks to re-open in the country and devaluing the riel. He also encouraged ambassadors to write to Lon Nol directly, instead of going through Sihanouk, angering the latter.[121] In early January 1970, Sihanouk left Cambodia for medical treatment in France.[122] Shortly after he left, Sirik Matak took the opportunity to close down the casinos.[123]
Deposition, GRUNK and Khmer Rouge years
1970 coup
In January 1970, Sihanouk left Cambodia for a two-month holiday in France, spending his time at a luxury resort in the French Riviera.[124] On 11 March 1970, a large protest took place outside the North Vietnamese and Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam embassies, as protesters demanded Viet Cong troops withdraw from Cambodia. The protests turned chaotic, as protesters looted both embassies and set them on fire, alarming Sihanouk.[125] Sihanouk, who was in Paris at the time, considered both returning to quell the protests and visiting Moscow, Beijing, and Hanoi. He opted for the latter, thinking that he could persuade its leaders to recall Viet Cong troops to their jungle sanctuaries, where they had originally established themselves between 1964 and 1969.[126]
Five days later, Oum Mannorine, the half-brother of Sihanouk's wife Monique, was summoned to the National Assembly to answer corruption charges.[127] On that night after the hearing, Mannorine ordered troops under his command to arrest Lon Nol and Sirik Matak, but ended up getting arrested by Lon Nol's troops instead. On 18 March 1970 the National Assembly voted to depose Sihanouk,[128] allowing Lon Nol to assume emergency powers.[129]
On that day, Sihanouk was in Moscow meeting Soviet prime minister
Uneasy alliance
On 23 March 1970, Sihanouk announced the formation of his resistance movement, the National United Front of Kampuchea (FUNK). He encouraged the Cambodian populace to join him and fight against Lon Nol's government. Sihanouk was revered by the Khmer peasantry as a god-like figure, and his endorsement of the Khmer Rouge had immediate effects.[133] The royal family was so revered that Lon Nol after the coup went to the royal palace, knelt at the feet of the queen mother and begged her forgiveness for deposing her son.[133]
Khmer Rouge soldiers broadcast Sihanouk's message in the Cambodian countryside, which roused demonstrations rooting for his cause that were brutally suppressed by Lon Nol's troops.[134] Sometime later, on 5 May 1970, Sihanouk announced the formation of a government-in-exile known as the Royal Government of the National Union of Kampuchea (GRUNK), leading Communist countries including China, North Vietnam, and North Korea to break relations with the Lon Nol regime.[135] In Phnom Penh, a military trial convened on 2 July 1970, whereby Sihanouk was charged with treason and corruption in his capacity as Head of State. After a three-day trial, the judges ruled Sihanouk guilty of both charges and sentenced to him death in absentia on 5 July 1970.[136]
Between 1970 and 1975, Sihanouk took up residence in state guesthouses at Beijing and Pyongyang, courtesy of the Chinese and North Korean governments, respectively.[137] In February 1973, Sihanouk traveled to Hanoi, where he started on a long journey with Khieu Samphan and other Khmer Rouge leaders. The convoy proceeded along the Ho Chi Minh trail and reached the Cambodian border at Stung Treng province the following month. From there, they traveled across the provinces of Stung Treng, Preah Vihear, and Siem Reap. Throughout this entire leg of the journey, Sihanouk faced constant bombardment from American planes participating in Operation Freedom Deal.[138] At Siem Reap, Sihanouk visited the temples of Angkor Wat, Banteay Srei, and Bayon.[139] In August 1973, Sisowath Sirik Matak wrote an open letter calling on Sihanouk to bring the Cambodian Civil War to an end and suggesting the possibility of his return to the country. When the letter reached Sihanouk, he angrily rejected Sirik Matak's entreaties.[140]
After the Khmer Republic fell to the Khmer Rouge on 17 April 1975, a new regime under its charge, Democratic Kampuchea, was formed. Sihanouk was appointed as its Head of State, a ceremonial position.[141] In September 1975,[142][143] Sihanouk briefly returned to Cambodia to inter the ashes of his mother,[144] before going abroad again to lobby for diplomatic recognition of Democratic Kampuchea.[145] He returned on 31 December 1975 and presided over a meeting to endorse the constitution of Democratic Kampuchea.[146] In February 1976, Khieu Samphan took him on a tour across the Cambodian countryside. Sihanouk was shocked to see the use of forced labour and population displacement carried out by the Khmer Rouge government, known as the Angkar. Following the tour, Sihanouk decided to resign as the Head of State.[147] The Angkar initially rejected his resignation request, though they subsequently accepted it in mid-April 1976,[148] retroactively backdating it to 2 April 1976.[149]
House arrest
From this point onwards, Sihanouk was kept under house arrest at the royal palace. In September 1978, he was removed to another apartment in Phnom Penh's suburbs, where he lived until the end of the year.[150] Throughout his confinement, Sihanouk made several unsuccessful requests to the Angkar to travel overseas.[151] Vietnam invaded Cambodia on 22 December 1978. On 1 January 1979, Sihanouk was taken from Phnom Penh to Sisophon, where he stayed for three days until 5 January, when he was taken back to Phnom Penh.[152] Sihanouk was taken to meet Pol Pot, who briefed him on the Angkar's plans to repulse Vietnamese troops.[153]
On 6 January 1979, Sihanouk was allowed to fly to Beijing from Phnom Penh, where he was greeted by
FUNCINPEC and CGDK years
Resistance movement
After the Khmer Rouge regime was overthrown, a new Cambodian government supported by Vietnam, the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK), was established. The Chinese leader, Deng Xiaoping, was unhappy[157] with Vietnam's influence over the PRK government. Deng proposed to Sihanouk that he co-operate with the Khmer Rouge to overthrow the PRK government, but Sihanouk refused,[158] as he opposed the genocidal policies pursued by the Khmer Rouge while they were in power.[157] In March 1981, Sihanouk established a resistance movement, FUNCINPEC which was complemented by a small resistance army known as Armée Nationale Sihanoukiste (ANS).[159]
He appointed In Tam, who had briefly served as Prime Minister in the Khmer Republic, as the commander-in-chief of ANS.[160] The ANS needed military aid from China, and Deng seized the opportunity to sway Sihanouk into collaborating with the Khmer Rouge.[161] Sihanouk reluctantly agreed, and started talks in March 1981 with the Khmer Rouge and the Son Sann-led Khmer People's National Liberation Front (KPNLF) on a unified anti-PRK resistance movement.[162]
Negotiations and progression
After several rounds of negotiations mediated by Deng and Singapore's prime minister Lee Kuan Yew,[163] FUNCINPEC, KPNLF, and the Khmer Rouge agreed to form the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK) in June 1982. The CGDK was headed by Sihanouk, and functioned as a government-in-exile.[164] The UN defeated a resolution to expel Democratic Kampuchea and admit the PRK, effectively confirming Sihanouk as Cambodia's internationally recognized head of state.[165]
As CGDK chairperson, Sihanouk unsuccessfully negotiated, over the next five years, with the Chinese government to broker a political settlement to end the Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia.[166] During this period, Sihanouk appointed two of his sons, Norodom Chakrapong and Norodom Ranariddh, to lead the ANS. Chakrapong was appointed as the deputy chief-of-staff for the ANS in March 1985,[167] while Ranariddh was minted to the twin positions of commander-in-chief and the chief-of-staff of the ANS in January 1986, replacing Tam.[168]
In December 1987, the Prime Minister of the PRK government, Hun Sen, first met with Sihanouk to discuss ending the protracted Cambodian–Vietnamese War.[169] The following July, the then-foreign minister of Indonesia, Ali Alatas, brokered the first round of meetings between the four warring Cambodian factions consisting of FUNCINPEC, Khmer Rouge, KPNLF, and the PRK government over the future of Cambodia. Two more rounds of meetings were held in February and May 1989; since all were held near Jakarta, they became known as the Jakarta Informal Meetings (JIM).[170]
In July 1989, Ali Alatas joined French foreign minister Roland Dumas in opening the Paris Peace Conference, where discussions took place regarding plans for Vietnamese troop withdrawal and power-sharing arrangements in a hypothetical future Cambodian government.[170] The following month, Sihanouk resigned as president of FUNCINPEC[171] but remained in the party as an ordinary member.[172] In September 1990, the United Nations (UN) sponsored the establishment of the Supreme National Council of Cambodia (SNC), an administrative body responsible for overseeing the sovereign affairs of Cambodia for an interim period until UN-sponsored elections were held.[173] The creation of the SNC was subsequently ratified with United Nations Security Council Resolution 668.[174] In July 1991 Sihanouk left FUNCINPEC altogether and was elected as the chairperson of the SNC.[175]
UNTAC administration era
Paris peace accords and return to Cambodia
On 23 October 1991, Sihanouk led the FUNCINPEC, Khmer Rouge, KPNLF, and PRK into signing the
The UNTAC administration was set up in February 1992, but stumbled in its peacekeeping operations as the Khmer Rouge refused to cooperate in disarmament.[179] In response, Sihanouk urged UNTAC to abandon the Khmer Rouge from the peacekeeping process on two occasions, in July and September 1992. During this period, Sihanouk mostly resided in Siem Reap and occasionally traveled by helicopter to supervise election preparations in KPNLF, FUNCINPEC, and Khmer Rouge resistance bases.[180]
Sihanouk left in November 1992 to seek medical treatment in Beijing,[181] where he stayed for the next six months until his return to Cambodia in May 1993, on the eve of elections.[182] While in Beijing, Sihanouk proposed a Presidential system government for Cambodia to then-UN secretary-general Boutros Boutros-Ghali, but soon dropped the idea after facing opposition from the Khmer Rouge.[183]
1993 elections and pre-monarchical restoration
When general elections were held, FUNCINPEC, now headed by Sihanouk's son Norodom Ranariddh, won, while the Cambodian People's Party (CPP) headed by Hun Sen came in second.[184] The CPP was unhappy with the election results, and on 3 June 1993, Hun Sen and Chea Sim called on Sihanouk to lead the government. Sihanouk complied, and announced the formation of a Provisional National Government (PRG) headed by him, with Hun Sen and Ranariddh as his deputies.[185] Ranariddh was surprised at Sihanouk's announcement, as he had not been informed of his father's plans, and joined Australia, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States in opposing the plan. The following day, Sihanouk rescinded his announcement through a national radio broadcast.[186]
On 14 June 1993, Sihanouk was reinstated as the head of state in a Constituent Assembly session presided over by Ranariddh, who took the opportunity to declare the 1970 coup d'état which overthrew Sihanouk as "illegal".[187] As Head of State, Sihanouk renamed the Cambodian military to its pre-1970 namesake, the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces. He also issued orders to officially rename the country from the State of Cambodia to simply "Cambodia", reinstating "Nokor Reach" as the National Anthem of Cambodia with some minor modifications to its lyrics, and the Cambodian flag to its pre-1970 design.[188]
At the same time, Sihanouk appointed Ranariddh and Hun Sen co-prime ministers, with equal powers.[189] This arrangement, which was provisional, was ratified by the Constituent Assembly on 2 July 1993.[187] On 30 August 1993,[190] Ranariddh and Hun Sen met with Sihanouk and presented two draft constitutions, one of them stipulating a constitutional monarchy headed by a king, and another a republic led by a head of state. Sihanouk opted for the draft stipulating Cambodia a constitutional monarchy,[191] which was ratified by the constituent assembly on 21 September 1993.[192]
Second reign
Monarchical restoration and political influence
The new constitution came into force on 24 September 1993, and Sihanouk was reinstated as the King of Cambodia.[193] A permanent coalition government was formed between FUNCINPEC, CPP and a third political party, the Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party (BLDP). In turn, Sihanouk made Ranariddh and Hun Sen First and Second Prime Ministers, respectively.[194] Shortly after that, Sihanouk left for Beijing, where he spent several months for cancer treatment.[195] In April 1994, Sihanouk returned[196] and the following month called the government to hold new elections so that the Khmer Rouge could be co-opted into the government.
Both Ranariddh and Hun Sen rejected his suggestion,[197] but Sihanouk pressed on, and further proposed a national unity government consisting of FUNCINPEC, CPP, and the Khmer Rouge headed by him.[198] Again, both prime ministers rejected Sihanouk's proposal, arguing that Khmer Rouge's past intransigent attitude made the proposal unrealistic.[199] Sihanouk backed down, and expressed frustration that Hun Sen and Ranariddh had been ignoring him. As both Norodom Sirivudh[200] and Julio Jeldres, his younger half-brother and official biographer, respectively, saw it, this was a clear sign that the monarchy's ability to exert control over national affairs had diminished, at least vis-a-vis the prime ministers.[201]
In July 1994, one of his sons, Norodom Chakrapong, led a failed coup attempt to topple the government.[202] Following the coup attempt, Chakrapong took refuge in a hotel in Phnom Penh, but government troops soon discovered his hideout and surrounded the hotel. Chakrapong called Sihanouk, who negotiated with government representatives to allow him to go into exile in Malaysia.[203] The following November, Sirivudh was accused of plotting to assassinate Hun Sen and imprisoned. Sihanouk intervened to have Sirivudh detained at the interior ministry's headquarters, convinced that there was a secret plan to kill the latter if he were to remain in prison.[204] After Sirivudh was relocated to the safer location, Sihanouk appealed to Hun Sen that Sirivudh be allowed to go into exile in France together with his family. Subsequently, Hun Sen accepted his offer.[205]
Relations between the two co-prime ministers, Ranariddh and Hun Sen, deteriorated from March 1996,[206] when the former accused the CPP of repeatedly delaying the allocation process of low-level government posts to FUNCINPECs.[207] Ranariddh threatened to pull out of the coalition government[208] and hold national elections in the same year if his demands were not met,[209] stoking unease among Hun Sen and other CPP officials.[209] The following month, Sihanouk presided over a meeting between several royal family members and senior FUNCINPEC officials in Paris. Sihanouk attempted to reduce tensions between FUNCINPEC and the CPP by assuring that FUNCINPEC would not leave the coalition government and that there were no reactionary elements planning to bring down Hun Sen or the CPP.[210]
In March 1997, Sihanouk expressed his willingness to abdicate the throne, claiming that rising anti-royalist sentiment among the populace was threatening the monarchy's existence.[211] In response, Hun Sen tersely warned Sihanouk that he would introduce constitutional amendments to prohibit members of the royal family from participating in politics if he followed through on his suggestion.[212] As Widyono saw it, Sihanouk remained popular with the Cambodian electorate, and Hun Sen feared that, should he abdicate and enter politics, he would win in any future elections, thereby undercutting CPP's political clout.[211]
In July 1997, violent clashes erupted in Phnom Penh between infantry forces separately allied to the CPP and FUNCINPEC, which effectively led to Ranariddh's ousting after FUNCINPEC forces were defeated.[213] Sihanouk voiced displeasure with Hun Sen for orchestrating the clashes, but refrained from calling Ranariddh's ouster a "coup d'état", a term which FUNCINPEC members used.[214] When the National Assembly elected Ung Huot as the First Prime Minister to replace Ranariddh on 6 August 1997,[215] Sihanouk charged that Ranariddh's ouster was illegal and renewed his offer to abdicate the throne, a plan which did not materialize.[216]
In September 1998, Sihanouk meditated political talks in
Final years as King
Sihanouk maintained a monthly bulletin in which he wrote commentaries on political issues and posted old photos of Cambodia in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1997, a character known by the name of "Ruom Rith" first appeared in his monthly bulletin, expressing critical comments on Hun Sen and the government. Hun Sen became offended by Ruom Rith's criticisms, and on at least two occasions in 1998 and 2003 persuaded Sihanouk to stop publishing his comments.[219][220] According to Ranariddh, Ruom Rith was an alter ego of Sihanouk, a claim which the latter vehemently denied.[221] In July 2002, Sihanouk expressed concern over the absence of detailed constitutional provisions over the organization and functioning of the Cambodian throne council.[222] When Hun Sen rejected Sihanouk's concern, the latter followed up in September 2002 by threatening to abdicate, so as to force the throne council to convene and elect a new monarch.[223]
In July 2003,
Both parties eventually backed off from their threats, and the swearing-in ceremony was held in October 2003, with Sihanouk in attendance.[227] The CPP, FUNCINPEC, and SRP held additional talks into 2004 to break the political stalemate, but to no avail. At the same time, Sihanouk proposed a unity government jointly led by politicians from all three political parties, which Hun Sen and Ranariddh both rebuffed.[228]
In February 2004, Sihanouk advocated and publicly backed same-sex marriage, at a time when the matter was relatively taboo and against Cambodia's backdrop as a conservative society and was praised for his support for the nation's LGBT demographic.[229][230]
Sihanouk also engaged in pursuing philanthropy with his establishment of the "Samdech Euv Team" whose primary purpose is to assist in humanitarian works and projects throughout the country, of which he would later dedicate much of himself during his retirement years.[231]
Abdication and retirement
On 6 July 2004, in an open letter, Sihanouk announced his plans to abdicate once again. At the same time, he criticised Hun Sen and Ranariddh for ignoring his suggestions on how to resolve the political stalemate of the past year. Meanwhile, Hun Sen and Ranariddh had agreed to introduce a constitutional amendment that provided for an open voting system, requiring parliamentarians to select cabinet ministers and the president of the National Assembly by a show of hands. Sihanouk disapproved of the open voting system, calling upon Senate President Chea Sim not to sign the amendment. When Chea Sim heeded Sihanouk's advice, he was ferried out of the country shortly before the National Assembly convened to vote on the amendment on 15 July.[232]
On 17 July 2004, the CPP and FUNCINPEC agreed to form a coalition government, leaving SRP out as an
In March 2005, Sihanouk accused Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam of encroaching into Cambodian territory, through unilateral border demarcation exercises without Cambodian participation. Two months later, Sihanouk formed the Supreme National Council on Border Affairs (SNCBA), which he headed, to address these concerns.[235] While the SRP and Chea Sim expressed support for Sihanouk for the formation of the SNCBA, Hun Sen decided to form a separate body, National Authority on Border Affairs (NABA), to deal with border concerns, with SNCBA to serve only as an advisory body.[236] After Hun Sen signed a border treaty with Vietnam in October 2005, Sihanouk dissolved the SNCBA.[237]
In August 2007, the Cambodian Action Committee for Justice and Equity, a US-based human rights NGO, called for Sihanouk's
The following year, bilateral relations between Thailand and Cambodia became strained due to
Death and funeral
In January 2012, Sihanouk issued a letter in which he expressed his wish that his body be cremated after his death, and his ashes be interred in a golden urn.[246] A few months later, in September 2012, Sihanouk said that he would not return to Cambodia from Beijing for his 90th birthday, citing fatigue.[247] On 15 October 2012, Sihanouk died of a heart attack at 1:20 am, Phnom Penh time.[248] When the news broke, Sihamoni, Hun Sen, and other government officials flew to Beijing to pay their last respects.[249]
The Cambodian government announced an official mourning period of seven days between 17 and 24 October 2012, and state flags were ordered to fly at one-third height. Two days later, Sihanouk's body was brought back from Beijing on an Air China flight,[250] and about 1.2 million people lined the streets from the airport to the royal palace to witness the return of Sihanouk's cortège.[251]
In late November 2012, Hun Sen said that Sihanouk's funeral and cremation were to be carried out in February 2013. Sihanouk's body lay in state at the royal palace for[252] the next three months until the funeral was held on 1 February 2013.[253] A 6,000-metre (20,000 ft) street procession was held, and Sihanouk's body was subsequently kept at the royal crematorium until 4 February 2013 when his body was cremated.[254]
The following day, the royal family scattered some of Sihanouk's ashes into the
Legacy
Sihanouk was at the forefront of Cambodian public life for more than 60 years, serving in various capacities and was one of the most consequential leaders in modern Cambodian history.[258][259] Indeed, as noted journalist Martin Woollacott of The Guardian said, "No monarch in modern times has embodied the life and fate of his country so completely as Norodom Sihanouk."[260]
This was reflected in him being the
Credited as one of the 'great survivors' of contemporary Asian politics and described as a charismatic, albeit mercurial figure,
However, as Woollacott noted, given the context of the country's tumultuous history, "to Cambodians, Sihanouk represented continuity when so much in their country had been destroyed. They valued his warmth and his evident concern for his people, while recognising that he had made many mistakes."[269][270] Indeed, Sihanouk's own tumultuous life is sometimes described as mirroring that of his country and he also expressed regret at some of his shortcomings during his time at the helm of Cambodia.[271][272] Chandler and Osborne observed that despite his flaws, he was devoted to his country.[259][273] Moreover, this perspective is echoed by Jamie Metzl, a former Executive Vice President of the Asia Society, who commended Sihanouk's patriotism and remarked that "the totality of his life's work demonstrates an unflappable commitment" to Cambodia, notwithstanding the aforementioned reputational blight.[274]
To that end, he commanded the deep loyalty and respect of Cambodians who "throughout coups, wars, regime changes and famine - even a full-scale genocide", found in Sihanouk, whom they considered as a "God king", as "the one stable influence in their otherwise turbulent lives", which is also underscored by his status as the overarching unifying figure of the country.[258][267][275] This was evident in opinion polling data released by the Cambodian Information Centre for the period between 1986 and 1997, which revealed he was the most popular leader in the country, with an approval rating ranging from a low of 56% to a high of 72% among respondents who were surveyed.[276] According to Henri Locard, a historian specializing in Cambodia, he believes Sihanouk's stature in the overall national consciousness is on the same level as the foremost symbols of Cambodia, such as Angkor and the national flag, calling him as "the symbol of the country."[277]
Artistic works
Film-making
Sihanouk produced about 50 films throughout his lifetime.[278] He developed an interest in the cinema at a young age, which he attributed to frequent trips to the cinema with his parents.[1] Shortly after becoming king in 1941, Sihanouk made a few amateur films,[279] and sent Cambodian students to study film-making in France.[280] When the film Lord Jim was released in 1965, Sihanouk was vexed with the negative portrayal it gave of Cambodia.[281] In response, Sihanouk produced his first feature film, Apsara, in 1966. He went on to produce, direct, and act in eight more films between 1966 and 1969, roping in members of the royal family and military generals to star in his films.[282]
Sihanouk expressed that his films were created with the intent of portraying Cambodia in a positive light.[283] Milton Osborne also noted that the films were filled with Cold War[284] and nationalist propaganda themes.[285] Sihanouk's former adviser, Charles Meyer, said that his films created from the 1960s were of amateur standard, while the director of Reyum Institute, Ly Daravuth, similarly commented in 2006 that his films lacked artistic qualities.[279]
In 1967, one of his films, The Enchanted Forest, was nominated at the 5th Moscow International Film Festival.[286] In 1968, Sihanouk launched the Phnom Penh International Film Festival, which was held for a second time in 1969. In both years, a special award category was designated, the Golden Apsara Prize, of which Sihanouk was its only nominee and winner.[285] After Sihanouk was ousted in 1970, he ceased producing films for the next seventeen years until 1987.[287]
In 1997, Sihanouk received a special jury prize from the
Music
Sihanouk wrote at least 48 musical compositions between the late 1940s and the early 1970s,[289] combining both traditional Khmer and Western themes into his works.[290] From the 1940s until the 1960s, Sihanouk's compositions were mostly based on sentimental, romantic and patriotic themes. Sihanouk's romantic songs reflected his numerous romantic liaisons, particularly his relationship with his wife Monique,[291] and compositions such as "My Darling" and "Monica" were dedicated to her. He also wrote nationalistic songs, meant to showcase the beauty of provincial towns and at the same time foster a sense of patriotism and national unity among Cambodians. Notable compositions, such as "Flower of Battambang", "Beauty of Kep City", "Phnom Kulen", and "Phnom Penh", are examples of these. A few of his other compositions, including "Luang Prabang", "Nostalgia of China", and "Goodbye Bogor" were sentimental songs[292] about neighbouring countries including Laos, Indonesia, and China.[293]
After he was ousted as head of state in 1970, Sihanouk wrote several revolutionary-style songs[294] that praised the leaders of Communist countries, including "Hommage Khmer au Maréchal Kim Il Sung" and "Merci, Piste Ho Chi Minh". They were intended to show his gratitude toward the Communist leaders, which had supported GRUNK between 1970 and 1975.[295] From a young age,[1] Sihanouk learned to play several musical instruments including the clarinet, saxophone, piano, and accordion.[286]
In the 1960s, Sihanouk led a musical band made up of his relatives, who would perform French songs and his own personal compositions for diplomats at the royal palace.[296] In his tours across Cambodian provinces, Sihanouk was accompanied by the Royal Military Orchestra and Cambodian pop singers.[293] Later, while Sihanouk was living in exile during the 1980s, he hosted concerts to entertain diplomats whenever he visited the United Nations Headquarters in New York City.[297] After he was reinstated as king in 1993, Sihanouk continued to perform in concerts held at the royal palace on an occasional basis.[298]
Titles and styles
Styles of King Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia | ||
---|---|---|
Reference style His Majesty | | |
Spoken style | Your Majesty |
Sihanouk was known by many formal and informal titles throughout his lifetime,
In 2004, after his second abdication, Sihanouk became known as the King Father of Cambodia,[304] with the official title of "Preah Karuna Preah Bat Sâmdach Preah Norodom Sihanouk Preahmâhaviraksat" (Khmer: ព្រះករុណាព្រះបាទសម្តេចព្រះ នរោត្តម សីហនុ ព្រះមហាវីរក្សត្រ).[300] He was also referred to by another honorific, "His Majesty King Norodom Sihanouk The Great Heroic King King-Father of Khmer independence, territorial integrity and national unity" (ព្រះករុណា ព្រះបាទសម្ដេចព្រះ នរោត្តម សីហនុ ព្រះមហាវីរក្សត្រ ព្រះវររាជបិតាឯករាជ្យ បូរណភាពទឹកដី និងឯកភាពជាតិខ្មែរ).[305]
At the same time, he issued a royal decree requesting to be called "Samdech Ta" (សម្ដេចតា) or "Samdech Ta-tuot" (សម្ដេចតាទួត),[306] which translates as "Grandfather" and "Great-grandfather", respectively, in English.[307] When Sihanouk died in October 2012, he was bestowed by his son Sihamoni with the posthumous title of "Preah Karuna Preah Norodom Sihanouk Preah Borom Ratanakkot" (ព្រះករុណាព្រះនរោត្តម សីហនុ ព្រះបរមរតនកោដ្ឋ), which literally translates as "The King who lies in the Diamond Urn" in English.[308]
Personal life
Sihanouk's name is derived from two Sanskrit words "Siha" (सिंह) and "Hanu" (हनु), which translates as "Lion" and "Jaws", respectively, in English.[309] He was fluent in Khmer, French, and English,[310] and also learned Greek and Latin in high school.[311] In his high school days, Sihanouk played football, basketball, volleyball, and also took up horse riding.[1] He suffered from diabetes and depression in the 1960s,[312] which flared up again in the late 1970s while living in captivity under the Khmer Rouge.[313]
In November 1992, Sihanouk suffered a stroke[314] caused by the thickening of the coronary arteries and blood vessels.[315] In 1993, he was diagnosed with B cell lymphoma in the prostate[316] and was treated with chemotherapy and surgery.[317] Sihanouk's lymphoma went into remission in 1995,[318] but returned again in 2005 in the gastric region. He suffered a third bout of lymphoma in 2008,[316] and after prolonged treatment it went into remission the following year.[319]
In 1960, Sihanouk built a personal residence at
In 1974 North Korean leader Kim Il Sung built Changsuwon, a 40-room mansion, for Sihanouk.[324] Changsuwon was built near an artificial lake, and Sihanouk spent time taking boat trips there and also shot a few films within the compound.[325] In August 2008, Sihanouk declared his assets on his website, which according to him consisted of a small house in Siem Reap and 30,000 euros of cash savings stored in a French bank. He also stated that his residences in Beijing and Pyongyang were guesthouses owned by the governments of China and North Korea, respectively, and that they did not belong to him.[326]
Family
On 4 March 1955, Sihanouk married
Monikessan died in childbirth in 1946. His marriages to the other four women, including his official wife Thavet Norleak, all ended in divorce.[330] Sihanouk had fourteen children with five different wives. Thavet Norleak bore him no children.[331] During the Khmer Rouge years, five children and fourteen grandchildren disappeared. Sihanouk believed they were killed by the Khmer Rouge.[332][333]
Sihanouk had the following issue:
Name | Year of birth | Year of death | Mother | Cause of death |
---|---|---|---|---|
Norodom Buppha Devi | 1943 | 2019 | Phat Kanhol | |
Norodom Yuvaneath | 1943 | 2021 | Sisowath Pongsanmoni | |
Norodom Ranariddh | 1944 | 2021 | Phat Kanhol | |
Norodom Ravivong | 1944 | 1973 | Sisowath Pongsanmoni | Malaria[334] |
Norodom Chakrapong | 1945 | Sisowath Pongsanmoni | ||
Norodom Naradipo | 1946 | 1976 | Sisowath Monikessan | Disappeared under Khmer Rouge[335] |
Norodom Sorya Roeungsi | 1947 | 1976 | Sisowath Pongsanmoni | Disappeared under Khmer Rouge[335] |
Norodom Kantha Bopha | 1948 | 1952 | Sisowath Pongsanmoni | Leukemia[334] |
Norodom Khemanourak | 1949 | 1975 | Sisowath Pongsanmoni | Disappeared under Khmer Rouge[336] |
Norodom Botum Bopha | 1951 | 1975 | Sisowath Pongsanmoni | Disappeared under Khmer Rouge[336] |
Norodom Sujata | 1953 | 1975 | Mam Manivan | Disappeared under Khmer Rouge[336] |
Norodom Sihamoni | 1953 | Monique Izzi (Monineath) | ||
Norodom Narindrapong | 1954 | 2003 | Monique Izzi (Monineath) | Heart attack[337] |
Norodom Arunrasmy | 1955 | Mam Manivan |
Ancestry
Ancestors of Norodom Sihanouk[338] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Notes
- ^ In this Cambodian name, the surname is Norodom. In accordance with Cambodian custom, this person should be referred to by the given name, Sihanouk.
- ^ Khmer: នរោត្តម សីហនុ, UNGEGN: Nôroŭttâm Seihânŭ, ALA-LC: Narottam Sīhanu [nɔroːɗɑm səjhanuʔ]
- ^ Khmer: សម្តេចឪ, UNGEGN: Sâmdéch Âu, ALA-LC: Samṭec Ýu [sɑmɗac ʔɨw]
References
- ^ a b c d e Jeldres (2005), p. 30.
- ^ Jeldres (2003), p. 58.
- ^ a b Jeldres (2003), p. 44.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 32.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 24.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 294.
- ^ a b Jeldres (2003), p. 54.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 30.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 37.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 42.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 43.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 45.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 48.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 44.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 50.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 51.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 46.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 206.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 47.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 43.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 40.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 41.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 42.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 66.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 63.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 58.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 59.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 60.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 62.
- ^ a b Chandler (1991), p. 61.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 74.
- ^ a b Osborne (1994), p. 76.
- ^ a b c Jeldres (2003), p. 61.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 70.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 80.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 87.
- ^ a b Osborne (1994), p. 88.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 52.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 89.
- ^ Jeldres (2003), p. 61; Jeldres (2005), p. 54.
- ^ a b Chandler (1991), p. 78.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 91.
- ^ PRO, FO 371/117124, British Legation Phnom Penh's telegrams 86 and 87 (1955)
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 93.
- ^ a b Chandler (1991), p. 79.
- incomplete short citation]
- ^ Kiernan, B. How Pol Pot came to power, Yale University Press, 2004, p. 158
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 82.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 97.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 83.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 55.
- ^ Jeldres (2003), p. 68.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 58.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 59.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 87.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 91.
- ^ Chandler (1991), pp. 95, 98.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 105.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 80.
- ^ Sihanouk (1973), pp. 78–79.
- ^ a b Chandler (1991), p. 93.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 102.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 86.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 152.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 92.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 94.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 95.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 96.
- ^ Sihanouk (1973), p. 105.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 101.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 110.
- ^ Sihanouk (1973), p. 107.
- ^ Sihanouk (1973), p. 108.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 106.
- ^ a b Sihanouk (1973), p. 110.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 112.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 107.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 115.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 61.
- ^ "CAMBODIA NAMES RULER; Prince Sihanouk Agrees to Become 'Chief of State'". The New York Times. 14 June 1960. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 62.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 120.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 144.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 119.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 120.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 157.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 158.
- ^ Peou (2000), pp. 125–26.
- ^ Sihanouk (1973), p. 133.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 161.
- ^ Sihanouk (1973), p. 137.
- ^ Chandler (1991), pp. 136–37.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 140.
- ^ a b Marlay & Neher (1999), p. 160.
- ^ Sihanouk (1973), p. 139.
- ^ Peou (2000), p. 124.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 187.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 188.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 156.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 189.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 164.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 190.
- ^ a b Osborne (1994), p. 193.
- ^ a b Chandler (1991), p. 166.
- ^ Cohen (1968), p. 18.
- ^ Cohen (1968), p. 19.
- ^ Cohen (1968), p. 25.
- ^ Cohen (1968), p. 26.
- ^ a b Cohen (1968), p. 28.
- ^ Cohen (1968), p. 29.
- ^ a b Langguth (2000), p. 543.
- ^ Marlay & Neher (1999), p. 162.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 195; Clymer (2013), pp. 14–16.
- ^ Clymer (2013), pp. 14–16.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 173.
- ^ Sihanouk (1973), p. 40.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 184.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 139.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 205.
- ^ a b Chandler (1991), p. 185.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 189.
- ^ a b Jeldres (2005), p. 70.
- ^ Marlay & Neher (1999), p. 164.
- ^ Langguth (2000), p. 557.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 211.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 195.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 213.
- ^ Sihanouk (1973), p. 51.
- ^ Sihanouk (1973), p. 50.
- ^ Langguth (2000), p. 558; Jeldres (2005), p. 79.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 218.
- ^ Langguth (2000), p. 559.
- ^ a b c Langguth (2000), p. 558.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 219.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 137.
- ^ Sihanouk (1973), p. 271.
- ^ a b Marlay & Neher (1999), p. 167.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 178.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 183.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 226.
- ^ "Cambodians Designate Sihanouk as Chief for Life". The New York Times. UPI. 26 April 1975. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
- ^ David A. Andelman (10 September 1975). "Sihanouk Returns to a Big Welcome in Phnom Penh". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 229.
- ^ Marlay & Neher (1999), p. 168.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 191.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 231.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 232.
- ^ "PHNOM PENH SAYS SIHANOUK RESIGNS". The New York Times. UPI. 5 April 1976. Retrieved 30 July 2023.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 233.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 238.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 234.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 240.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 311.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 242.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 202.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), pp. 205–06.
- ^ a b Jeldres (2005), p. 207.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), pp. 197–98.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 235.
- ^ Mehta (2001), p. 68.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 251.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 236.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 239.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 240.
- ^ Carney, Timothy. Kampuchea in 1982: Political and Military Escalation. p. 80. In Asian Survey, 23:1, 1983.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 252.
- ^ Mehta (2001), p. 73.
- ^ Mehta (2001), p. 184.
- ^ Mehta & Mehta (2013), pp. 154–55.
- ^ a b Widyono (2008), p. 34.
- ^ "Final Cambodian talks under way". Lodi News-Sentinel. 29 August 1989. Retrieved 25 June 2015.
- ^ Findlay (1995), p. 8.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 255.
- ^ Findlay (1995), p. 7.
- ^ Findlay (1995), p. 9.
- ^ Findlay (1995), p. 12.
- ^ Findlay (1995), p. 15.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 142.
- ^ Widyono (2008), pp. 82–83.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 84.
- ^ Findlay (1995), p. 46.
- ^ Findlay (1995), p. 86.
- ^ Findlay (1995), pp. 56–57.
- ^ Findlay (1995), pp. 2, 84.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 124.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 125.
- ^ a b Findlay (1995), p. 93.
- ^ Mehta & Mehta (2013), p. 231.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 129.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 261.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 161.
- ^ Findlay (1995), p. 97.
- ^ Jeldres (2003), p. 11.
- ^ Widyono (2008), pp. 1844–45.
- ^ Mehta & Mehta (2013), p. 232.
- ^ Peou (2000), p. 220.
- ^ Peou (2000), p. 221; Mehta & Mehta (2013), p. 233.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 162.
- ^ Peou (2000), p. 222; Widyono (2008), p. 163.
- ^ Peou (2000), p. 223.
- ^ Peou (2000), p. 225.
- ^ Mehta & Mehta (2013), p. 246.
- ^ Nate Thayer (15 July 1994). "Frantic calls from Regent's Rm 406". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 20 February 2015.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 184.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 185.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 214.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 216.
- ^ Mehta & Mehta (2013), p. 253.
- ^ a b Widyono (2008), p. 215.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 223.
- ^ a b Widyono (2008), p. 241.
- ^ Ker Munthit (21 March 1997). "Royal abdication threat ignites war of words". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 18 July 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 258.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 259.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 263.
- ^ "Cambodian King Sihanouk offers to abdicate – But still considers son's ouster illegal". CNN. 21 August 1997. Archived from the original on 27 February 2015. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
- ^ a b Summers (2003), p. 238.
- ^ "Ranariddh maneuvered into new summit". The Phnom Penh Post. 13 November 1998. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 22 December 2015.
- ^ Widyono (2008), pp. 167–68.
- ^ Imran Vittachi (16 May 1997). "King muzzles the 'Smile of the month'". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 6 July 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
- ^ Mehta & Mehta (2013), p. 302.
- ^ Vong Sokheng (5 July 2002). "Succession issue troubles King". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 1 July 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
- ^ Vong Sokheng & Robert Carmichael (27 September 2002). "King mulls abdication". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 1 July 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
- ^ Chin (2005), p. 115.
- ^ Susan Front, Sam Rith & Chhim Sopheark (29 August 2003). "Council rejects complaints by SRP, Funcinpec". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 5 July 2015.
- ^ Yun Samean & Lor Chandara (17 September 2003). "King Won't Convene New Parliament". The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 5 July 2015.
- ^ Yun Samean (6 October 2003). "King Swears in Legislators Despite Standoff". The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 5 July 2015.
- ^ Chin (2005), pp. 117, 119; Widyono (2008), p. 277.
- ^ "Cambodian king backs gay marriage". BBC News. 20 February 2004. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ "Cambodian LGBT Comes Out of the Shadows". VOA News. 21 March 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ISBN 9789924907855.
- ^ Chin (2005), pp. 119–120.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 278.
- ^ "Milestones in the life of King Norodom Sihanouk". The Phnom Penh Post. 22 October 2004. Archived from the original on 6 July 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
- ^ a b Liam Cochrane (5 November 2004). "Sihamoni crowned new King". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 6 July 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
- ^ Vong Sokheng (1 July 2005). "Border Affairs Council no match for the Strongman". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 6 July 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
- ^ Vong Sokheng & Liam Cochrane (21 October 2005). "Border treaty sparks backlash, arrests". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 16 August 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
- ^ a b Yun Samean & Emily Lodish (31 August 2007). "Gov't Rejects Call To Investigate King Father". The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original on 6 July 2015. Retrieved 5 July 2015.
- ^ Erika Kinetz & Yun Samean (31 August 2007). "Retired King Invites ECCC Staff to Palace". The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original on 6 July 2015. Retrieved 5 July 2015.
- ^ "King Father Sihanouk holds ECCC at bay".
- ^ Erik Wasson & Yun Samean (6 September 2007). "UN Won't Attend Retired King's KR Discussion". The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
- ^ "Unofficial Translation from French–Communiqué from Norodom Sihanouk". The Phnom Penh Post. 9 July 2008. Archived from the original on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
- ^ "Sihanouk feeling well". The Phnom Penh Post. 20 August 2009. Archived from the original on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
- ^ Vong Sokheng (31 October 2011). "Return of the king". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 10 August 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
- ^ Chun Sakada (19 January 2012). "Former King Sihanouk in China for More Healthcare". VOA Khmer. Archived from the original on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
- ^ "Cambodia's Sihanouk requests cremation". The Jakarta Post. 9 January 2012. Archived from the original on 14 July 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
- ^ Meas Sokchea (28 September 2012). "Beijing birthday bash for King Father". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
- ^ David Boyle (15 October 2012). "King Father Norodom Sihanouk passed away". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
- ^ AKP Phnom Penh (15 October 2012). "King and PM Depart for Beijing". Agence Kampuchea Press. Archived from the original on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
- ^ AKP Phnom Penh (17 October 2012). "Cambodian People Flood to Receive King-Father's Body". Agence Kampuchea Press. Archived from the original on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
- ^ Cabinet of Hun Sen; Prime Minister of Cambodia (27 October 2012). "Selected Impromptu Comments during the Handing-out of Land Titles for People in the Province of Kompong Chhnang's Rolea Pa Ea District". Cambodia New Vision. Archived from the original on 11 December 2015. Retrieved 10 December 2015.
- ^ Vong Sokheng (27 November 2012). "Date set for Sihanouk's funeral". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 25 July 2015.
- ^ Rachel Vandenbrink (1 February 2013). "'Last Chance' to Pay Respects". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
- ^ AKP Phnom Penh (4 February 2013). "Cambodia's Late King-Father Cremated". Agence Kampuchea Presse. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2015.
- ^ May Titthara & Shane Worrell (8 February 2013). "Sihanouk's ashes enter the Royal Palace". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 25 July 2015.
- ^ Sen David (13 October 2013). "Sihanouk statue inaugurated". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 25 July 2015.
- ^ Sovannara (13 July 2014). "Late Cambodian King Sihanouk's Ashes Enshrined in Stupa in Royal Palace". Khmer Times. Archived from the original on 27 May 2024. Retrieved 25 July 2015.
- ^ a b "Profile: Norodom Sihanouk". BBC News. 14 October 2004. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ a b c Osborne, Milton (17 October 2012). "The Complex Legacy of Norodom Sihanouk". Lowy institute. Archived from the original on 25 June 2022. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ Woollacott, Martin (15 October 2012). "King Norodom Sihanouk obituary". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ "Most state roles held by a modern royal". Guinness World Records Limited. 1993. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ "Sihanouk: The great survivor turns 89". Lowy institute. 31 October 2011. Archived from the original on 26 June 2022. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ "Norodom Sihanouk dies at 89; former king led Cambodia through decades of strife". The Washington Post. 15 October 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ "CO13030 - Norodom Sihanouk: His Mercurial Art of Preserving a Small State". S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies. 9 September 2014. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ "Norodom Sihanouk's wonderful, horrible life". New Mandala. 30 January 2013. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
- ^ Chandler, David (19 October 2012). "Norodom Sihanouk, a Cambodian life". OpenDemocracy. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ a b "Obituary: Norodom Sihanouk, former king of Cambodia". BBC News. 15 October 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ "Sihanouk Warns Against Return of Khmer Rouge". The Washington Post. 25 July 1988. Retrieved 11 May 2022.
- ^ Woollacott, Martin (15 October 2012). "King Norodom Sihanouk obituary". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ "Cambodia country profile". BBC News. 20 July 2018. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ "Cambodia's ex-king Norodom Sihanouk dies in Beijing". South China Morning Post. 15 October 2012. Retrieved 11 May 2022.
- ^ "Norodom Sihanouk dies at 89; former king of Cambodia". Los Angeles Times. 15 October 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ Chandler, David (19 October 2012). "Norodom Sihanouk, a Cambodian life". OpenDemocracy. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ "Photos: Remembering King Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia, 1922-2012". Asia Society. 15 October 2012. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
- ^ "The last Khmer god-king". The Phnom Penh Post. 23 October 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ "CIC surveys say Hun Sen and CPP lead the pack". The Phnom Penh Post. 17 July 1998. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ Huge crowds mourn Cambodia's former king. Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2022 – via YouTube.
- ^ Cat Barton (23 August 2007). "Cambodia film makers aim to rebuild tattered image". The Phnom Penh Post. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
- ^ a b c Kinetz et al. (2006), p. 5.
- ^ a b Baumgärtel (2010), p. 11.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 177.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 178.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 179.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 180.
- ^ a b Osborne (1994), p. 183.
- ^ a b Marlay & Neher (1999), p. 163.
- ^ Wemaere (2013), pp. 13, 54.
- ^ Baumgärtel (2010), p. 2.
- ^ Scott-Maxwell (2008), p. 184.
- ^ Scott-Maxwell (2008), p. 186.
- ^ Scott-Maxwell (2008), p. 185.
- ^ Scott-Maxwell (2008), p. 189.
- ^ a b LinDa Saphan. "Norodom Sihanouk and the political agenda of Cambodian music, 1955–1970 (The Newsletter | No.64 | Summer 2013)" (PDF). International Institute for Asian Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
- ^ Scott-Maxwell (2008), p. 187.
- ^ Scott-Maxwell (2008), p. 188.
- ^ Michelle Vachon (17 October 2012). "Norodom Sihanouk—The End of an Era". The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original on 11 July 2015. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 157.
- ^ Kinetz et al. (2006), p. 6.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 3.
- ^ a b c Narong (2007), p. 342.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 92.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 121.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 194.
- ^ Widyono (2008), p. 280.
- ^ "ព្រះករុណាព្រះបាទសម្តេចព្រះ នរោត្តម សីហនុ ព្រះមហាវីរក្សត្រ ព្រះវររាជបិតាឯករាជ្យ បូរណភាពទឹកដី និងឯកភាពជាតិខ្មែរ ព្រះអង្គបានយាងចូលព្រះទីវង្គត". Agence Kampuchea Presse. 15 October 2012. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
- ^ Lor Chandara & Wency Leung (14 October 2004). "Abdication Won't Diminish King's Influence". The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
- ^ Cabinet of Prime Minister Hun Sen (12 November 2012). "Selected Impromptu Comments during the Meeting and Handing out of land titles to People in the Communes of Roen and Tbeng Lej of Siemreap's Banteay Srey District". Cambodia New Vision. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
- ^ អត្ថបទ អង្គភាពព័ត៌មាន និងប្រតិកម្មរហ័ស (Press and Quick Reaction Unit) (13 November 2012). "សម្តេចតេជោពន្យល់ពីការប្រើប្រាស់ព្រះបរមបច្ឆាមរណនាមរបស់សម្តេចឪតម្រូវការសព្វាវុធការពារជាតិ និងការកែលម្អលើបញ្ហាការវាស់វែងដីធ្លី". Office of the Council of Ministers. Archived from the original on 23 July 2015. Retrieved 23 July 2015.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 27; Mehta (2001), p. 1.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 250.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 35.
- ^ Chandler (1991), p. 132.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 235.
- ^ Marlay & Neher (1999), p. 172.
- ^ "Sihanouk still extremely ill". New Straits Times. Agence France-Presse. 13 December 1992. Retrieved 23 July 2015.
- ^ a b Douglas Gillison (26 December 2008). "Retired King Says Cancer Has Returned". The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original on 23 July 2015. Retrieved 23 July 2015.
- ^ "'Healthy' King to return in New Year". The Phnom Penh Post. 25 March 1994. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 23 July 2015.
- ^ Reuter (4 February 1995). "Sihanouk cured of cancer, says paper". New Straits Times. Retrieved 23 July 2015.
- ^ Saing Soenthrith (30 June 2009). "Retired King Will Return Home From China in July". The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original on 23 July 2015. Retrieved 23 July 2015.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 141.
- ^ Jeldres (2012), p. 58.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 117.
- ^ Jeldres (2012), p. 59.
- ^ Burns, John F. (22 June 1985). "Sihanouk finds caviar and Kim Il Sung mix well". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 October 2015. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
- ^ Poppy McPherson (7 November 2014). "A gift that keeps on giving". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 1 August 2015. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
- ^ Georgia Wilkins (29 August 2008). "Sihanouk declares assets to debunk myth he's rich". The Phnom Penh Post. Archived from the original on 1 October 2015. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), p. 69.
- ^ Mehta (2001), p. 182.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), pp. ii, iii (Genealogy of HM King Norodom Sihanouk).
- ^ Mehta (2001), p. 5.
- ^ Osborne (1994), pp. 34–35.
- ^ Osborne (1994), p. 236.
- ^ Douglas Gillison (22 April 2008). "Retired King Says KR Murdered His Children, Grandchildren". The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
- ^ a b Jeldres (2003), p. 84.
- ^ a b Jeldres (2003), p. 96.
- ^ a b c Jeldres (2003), p. 97.
- ^ Lor Chandara (10 October 2003). "Prince Norodom Narindrapong Dies in France". The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
- ^ Jeldres (2005), pp. I, IV (Genealogy of HM King Ang Duong, Norodom).
Bibliography
Books
- Chandler, David P. (1991). The Tragedy of Cambodian History: Politics, War and Revolutions since 1945. US: ISBN 0-300-05752-0.
- Chin, Kin Wah (2005). Southeast Asian Affairs. ISBN 981-230-306-5.
- Clymer, Kenton (2013). The United States and Cambodia, 1969–2000: A Troubled Relationship. ISBN 978-1-134-34156-6.
- Findlay, Trevor (1995). Cambodia – The Legacy and Lessons of UNTAC–SIPRI Research Report No. 9 (PDF). Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Solna, Sweden: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-829186-8. Archived from the original(PDF) on 5 August 2009. Retrieved 22 May 2016.
- Jeldres, Julio A (2003). The Royal House of Cambodia. Phnom Penh: Monument Books. OCLC 54003889.
- Jeldres, Julio A (2005). Volume 1 – Shadows Over Angkor: Memoirs of His Majesty King Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia. Phnom Penh: Monument Books. ISBN 974-92648-6-X.
- Langguth, A.J. (2000). Our Vietnam The War 1954-1975. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0743212312.
- Marlay, Ross; Neher, Clark D. (1999). Patriots and Tyrants: Ten Asian Leaders. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-8442-3.
- Mehta, Harish C.; Mehta, Julie B. (2013). Strongman: The Extraordinary Life of Hun Sen. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4484-60-2.
- Mehta, Harish C. (2001). Warrior Prince: Norodom Ranariddh, Son of King Sihanouk of Cambodia. Singapore: Graham Brash. ISBN 981-218-086-9.
- Narong, Men S. (2007). Who's Who, The Most Influential People in Cambodia. Phnom Penh: Media Business Networks. ISBN 978-99950-66-00-0.
- Osborne, Milton E (1994). Sihanouk Prince of Light, Prince of Darkness. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1639-1.
- Peou, Sorpong (2000). Intervention and Change in Cambodia: Towards Democracy?. ISBN 981-230-042-2.
- Sihanouk, Norodom (1973). Burchett, William G. (ed.). My War with the CIA: Cambodia's fight for survival. US: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-021689-8.
- Summers, Laura (2003). The Far East and Australasia. New York: Psychology Press. pp. 227–243. ISBN 1-85743-133-2.
- Widyono, Benny (2008). Dancing in Shadows: Sihanouk, the Khmer Rouge, and the United Nations in Cambodia. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-5553-2.
Reports
- Baumgärtel, Tilman (2010). "KON – The Cinema of Cambodia" (PDF). Department of Media and Communication – Royal University of Phnom Penh. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
- Cohen, Arthur (9 April 1968). "Intelligence Report–Ten Years of Chinese Communist Foreign Policy" (PDF). Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
- Jeldres, Julio (September 2012). "A Personal Reflection on Norodom Sihanouk and Zhou Enlai: An Extraordinary Friendship on the Fringes of the Cold War" (PDF). Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review (4): 53–64. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 October 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
- Kinetz, Erika; Kimsong, Kay; Wasson, Erik; Chan Thul, Prak (31 October 2006). "His Majesty's Norodom Sihanouk's 84th Birthday – A special supplement to The Cambodia Daily" (PDF). The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 July 2015. Retrieved 9 July 2015.
- Scott-Maxwell, Aline (January 2008). "Royal songs and royal singing: Music in the Norodom Sihanouk archival collection, Monash University Library". Fontes Artis Musicae. 5 (1): 180–190. JSTOR 23512420.
- Wemaere, Séverine (managing director) (1 June 2013). "Memory! International Film Heritage Festival" (PDF). Technicolor Film Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
External links
- Norodom Sihanouk at IMDb