Peri-urban agriculture
Peri-urban regions can be defined as 'superficial' rural areas that are within the orbit of immediate urban hubs, in other words, areas that surround large population centers.[2] These regions can also be referred to as 'exurban areas', 'the rural-urban fringe' or the 'fringe', they include the transition zones between the outer limits of the commuter belt and the edge of newly constructed suburban areas.[3]
The term “peri-urban” used to describe agriculture, while difficult to define in terms of
Peri-urban agriculture is first and foremost "the production and distribution of food, fiber and fuel in and around cities".[9] Nevertheless the leading "feature of urban and [peri-urban] agriculture which distinguishes it from rural agriculture is its integration into the urban economic and ecological system"[10]
History
The concept of peri-urban has become prevalent as a result of limitations in the
Implementation
Urban and peri-urban agriculture is expected to become increasingly important for
Urban and peri-urban agriculture tend to differ in their form and their purpose. "Urban" usually refers to small areas such as vacant plots,
Peri-urban livestock production is often based on small
Benefits
Peri-urban agriculture provides environmental benefits by preserving or creating
Ecosystem services
Urban and peri-urban agricultural systems can improve urban environments through provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural
Supporting
Urban and peri-urban agriculture zones are key drivers for sustainability and urban biodiversity. Biodiversity favors resilience[27] by supporting and mitigating the negative impacts of the built environment by hosting a diversity of fauna and flora.[20] Also, small urban and peri-urban managed systems have higher quality soil formation than agricultural soils, because of the regular inputs of organic matter, such as composts and manures.[23]
Regulating
High levels of air pollution are present in urban centers which can have negative effects on human health,[28] therefore urban and peri-urban agriculture can help mitigate greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) through carbon storage and carbon sequestration.[16] Furthermore, urban and peri-urban systems contribute to regulating temperatures in cities, in fact, evapotranspiration from urban and peri-urban agriculture can reduce the effects of urban heat islands.[22]
Provisioning
The production of local food contributes to food security and food safety,[29] by shortening the supply chain and reducing transportation.[30]
Cultural
Alongside supporting and regulating ecosystem services, urban and peri-urban systems have a cultural and traditional value, some consider urban and peri-urban agriculture as a form of leisure, whereas other as a way of maintaining and perpetuating cultural and traditional agricultural practices.[31]
Multifunctionality
Peri-urban agriculture is multifunctional. "Multifunctional agriculture" refers to agriculture beyond its primary role of producing food and fibre, but as also having other functions. The key elements of multifunctionality are commodity and non-commodity outputs. Commodity outputs are food and fiber, as well as marketable products such as tourism. Non-commodity outputs include, food security, food safety, environmental protection, biodiversity, and a rural way of life.[32]
Also, the concept of multifunctionality is based on the idea of sustainable development, it aims at integrating the information over time and the geography of land uses and functions beyond its traditional function of food production, to include nature conservation, hydrological balance, aesthetics and recreation.[9] According to OECD, "beyond its primary function of supplying food and fiber, agricultural activity can also shape the landscape, provide environmental benefits such as land conservation, the sustainable management of renewable natural resources and the preservation of biodiversity, and contribute to the socio-economic viability of many rural areas".[33]
Social
In developing countries, besides the question of food security, one significant social dimension of peri-urban agriculture, specifically around production sites, is the rebuilding of communities and civil society.[34]
Studies have shown that urban
Closely related to health is food security, or dependable access to adequate and nutritious food. Urban gardening may be an opportunity for the urban poor to produce food for themselves or to sell their products for income, adding to income security.[36] Localized agriculture can also improve resilience by ensuring that there will be a more certain food supply in times of shortage, instability, and uncertainty. Indeed, peri-urban agriculture can be advantageous because of the proximity of production to the consumer. Particularly, the fresh fruits, vegetables and local foods that are available for communities and neighborhoods that live in food deserts.[37]
In addition, residents who share a plot of land may benefit from social interaction and recreation with others.[38] Agriculture is often an effective strategy for poverty reduction and social integration of disadvantaged groups, with the aims of integrating them into the urban network, providing a decent livelihood, and preventing social problems such as drugs and crime.[39]
Environmental
In many urban areas peri-urban agriculture reduces the environmental impacts of urban expansion by serving as an ecological buffer.[40] Unlike traditional farmers, peri-urban professionals have greater conscious of the ecological value of the environment.[40]
Moreover, local production and consumption of foods reduces the consumption of energy due to shorter transportation distances, less packaging and processing, and greater efficiency in production inputs.[41] Likewise, the recycling of urban waste into compost and waste water for irrigation conserves energy.[42] Peri-urban systems, can also contribute to biodiversity conservation through the integration of native species,[43] as well as modify positively urban micro-climates by regulating humidity, providing shade and regulating the wind.[44]
Comparatively to conventional food systems, the limited use of energy in peri-urban agriculture reduces greenhouse gas emissions and has lower impacts on global warming.[45]
Economic
The new business opportunities generated by peri-urban agriculture allow the creation of jobs and the generation of revenue, as well as improving local infrastructure and services, such as the construction of roads, schools, and restaurants. It also furthers agricultural training and education.[40] Indeed, beyond providing productivity to vacant land, treated wastewater and recycled waste, urban and peri-urban agriculture is an important source of income for many urban poor. Farming households lower their food costs substantially and can generate income by selling excess produce, which is significant, as urban poor commonly spend 50-70% of their income on food.[39] In addition to farming jobs, peri-urban agriculture can spark a need for traders, input suppliers, processors, marketers, and others. Peri-urban agriculture gives women and other non-heads of household a low-barrier occupation through which to support their families, adding to household productivity and giving women an outlet to assert themselves.[8]
Producing food in areas nearby to cities shortens supply chains, which aids quality and cost. The proximity of peri-urban farms to urban areas incurs cost savings compared to those in rural areas, as farms are still able to take advantage of economies of scale, to an extent, and require less transportation infrastructure to bring food in from city outskirts.[15] Perishable products are more easily preserved. Peri-urban farms are also able to flexibly respond and market themselves to urban consumer demands, since they are able to be closer and more specialized, and are tightly linked to the urban economy.[11]
Challenges
Challenges for peri-urban agriculture, like its benefits, arise from its proximity to densely built urban areas. Competition for resources with other urban sectors, aspects of agriculture that may be unpleasant for city dwellers, and quality of inputs must all be monitored.
Wise resource allocation is a quintessential struggle for agriculture, and is especially greater for peri-urban agriculture than rural agriculture due to its proximity to greater numbers of people and to existing stresses on the urban environment. Peri-urban agriculture uses land, water, labor, and energy that might be used by other urban economic sectors.[11]
Outputs
Peri-urban agriculture produces some aspects that may be unpleasant for urban residents, including smells, noises, pollution, and disease.
Management of animal waste can be challenging, since
Animals raised in a peri-urban agriculture setting are by nature in close proximity to dense human populations and are often sold live or processed at food markets. Animal production is not allowed in some city centers – for example, in Beijing it is not allowed within the borders of a certain road that delineates the city center, but on the outskirts of cities it is growing as an industrial production system particularly as diets change to demand more meat.[48] This has been a major factor in the avian influenza epidemics that have heavily affected Hong Kong, Nigeria, and Egypt. During outbreaks, people are advised to avoid open poultry markets.[49]
The disposal of manure is a concern as well, since manure from industrial livestock systems may contain levels of chemicals such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and heavy metals which characterize it as a solid waste when used in excess.[8] This is not only a concern in urban and peri-urban areas, but also faces rural farms as well.[50]
Insufficient or inferior inputs
Due to its competition for resources and pressure to shift to industrial systems that will meet urban demand, inappropriate or excessive use of agricultural inputs including
Uncertainty of land ownership
Another major challenge to the viability of both urban and peri-urban agriculture is land availability due to changing land rights, uses, and values. High population densities lead to competition and conflicts over land and natural resources as land is converted from agricultural to residential and business uses, and as the intensity of agriculture practiced on scarce spaces available increases.[8] In addition, many urban and peri-urban farmers are urban poor and are frequently women, who tend to be economically vulnerable.[51][8]
See also
References
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