Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

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Suffragette bombing and arson campaign
Single-issue terrorism (§ classification as terrorism)
Location
United Kingdom (including Ireland)
TargetGovernment, infrastructure, churches, the public
DateJune 1912 – August 1914
Executed byWomen's Social and Political Union (WSPU)
OutcomeStalemate, outbreak of World War I halts campaign
Casualties
)
  • 24+ injured (including two suffragettes)

    • letter bombs, assassination attempts and other forms of direct action
    and violence.

    At least 4 people were killed in the attacks, and at least 24 were injured (including two suffragettes). The campaign was halted at the

    outbreak of war
    in August 1914 without having brought about votes for women, as suffragettes pledged to pause the campaign to aid the war effort.

    Both suffragettes themselves and the authorities of the time described the arson and bomb attacks as a

    feminist historians Fern Riddell
    and Cheryl Jorgensen-Earp.

    Part of a series on
    Terrorism
    By ideology
    Religious
    Special-interest / Single-issue
    Related topics
    Structure
    • Methods
    • Tactics
    Terrorist groups
    Adherents
    State terrorism
    State-sponsored terrorism
    Response to terrorism

    Background

    Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst

    Multiple suffrage societies formed across Britain during the

    First World War, "suffragettes" had become the popular name for members of a new organisation, the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU).[2] Founded in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters, the Union was willing to carry out forms of direct action to achieve women's suffrage.[2] This was indicated by the Union's adoption of the motto "deeds, not words".[2]

    After decades of peaceful protest, the WSPU believed that more radical action was needed to get the government to listen to the campaign for women's rights.

    civil servants.[4]

    Parliament Street, but she was arrested during the act and imprisoned.[7][6]

    After 1911, suffragette violence was directed increasingly at commercial concerns and then at the general public.[4] This violence was encouraged by the leadership of the WSPU.[8] In particular, the daughter of WSPU leader Emmeline Pankhurst, Christabel Pankhurst, took an active role in planning a self-described "reign of terror".[9] Emmeline Pankhurst stated that the aim of the campaign was "to make England and every department of English life insecure and unsafe".[10]

    The campaign

    Start of the campaign

    In June and July 1912, five serious incidents signified the beginning of the campaign in earnest: the homes of three anti-suffrage

    cabinet ministers were attacked, a powerful bomb was planted in the Home Secretary's office and the Theatre Royal, Dublin, was set fire to and bombed while an audience attended a performance.[4] One of the most dangerous attacks committed by the suffragettes, the attack on the Theatre Royal was carried out by Mary Leigh, Gladys Evans, Lizzie Baker and Mabel Capper, who attempted to set fire to the building during a packed lunchtime matinee attended by the Prime Minister, H. H. Asquith.[1] A canister of gunpowder was left close to the stage and petrol and lit matches were thrown into the projection booth which contained highly combustible film reels.[1] Earlier in the day, Mary Leigh hurled a hatchet towards Asquith, which narrowly missed him and instead cut the Irish MP John Redmond on the ear.[1] The four suffragettes who carried out the attack on the Theatre Royal were subsequently charged with offences likely to endanger life.[6]

    Arson attacks continued for the rest of 1912.[4] Also vandalism attacks such as the damage to the royal Balmoral golf course having hole flags replaced with purple suffragette slogans against the Cabinet ministers, and vandalism to the memorial fountain on the Ballater to Braemar road, also attracted press attention.[11]

    On 25 October,

    Harrow station.[12] He was subsequently arrested and charged with endangering the safety of passengers.[12] Then, on 28 November, post boxes were booby trapped across Great Britain, starting a 5-day long pillar box sabotage campaign, with dangerous chemicals being poured into some boxes.[1][13] In London, meanwhile, many letters ignited while in transit at post offices, and paraffin and lit matches were also put in pillar boxes.[14][15] On 29 November, a bystander was assaulted with a whip at Aberdeen railway station by Emily Davison, as she believed the man was politician David Lloyd George in disguise.[16] On 17 December, railway signals at Potters Bar were tied together and disabled by suffragettes with the intention of endangering train journeys.[17][2]

    The increasing number of arson attacks and acts of criminal damage was criticised by some members of the WSPU, and in October 1912 two long-standing supporters of the suffragette cause,

    Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, were expelled from the Union for voicing their objections to such activities.[18] In November 1912, a car thought to be carrying the Prime Minister Lloyd-George was attacked by a woman jumping on the running board and hitting the window with a stone.[11] By the end of the year, 240 people had been sent to prison for militant suffragette activities.[1]

    Christabel Pankhurst set up a new weekly WSPU newspaper at this time named The Suffragette.[19] The newspaper began devoting double-page spreads to reporting the bomb and arson attacks that were now regularly occurring around the country.[20][21] This became the method by which the organisation claimed responsibility for each attack.[22] The independent press also began to publish weekly round-ups of the attacks, with some newspapers such as the Gloucester Journal and Liverpool Echo running dedicated columns on the latest "outrages".[1]

    January 1913 escalation

    Despite the outbreak of violence, at the start of January 1913 suffragettes still believed that it was possible to achieve the vote for women by

    speaker of the house ruled the amendments out of order and the government was forced to abandon the Bill.[4] In response, the WSPU stepped-up their bombing and arson campaign.[4] The subsequent campaign was directed and in some cases orchestrated by the WSPU leadership, and was specifically designed to terrorise the government and the general public to change their opinions on women's suffrage under threat of acts of violence.[1] In a speech, leader Emmeline Pankhurst declared "guerrilla warfare".[23]

    This letter box in Newport, Wales was one of many that were booby trapped by suffragettes in 1913

    The suffragettes invented the letter bomb, a device intended to kill or injure the recipient,[24] and an increasing number began to be posted. On 29 January, several letter bombs were sent to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, and the prime minister Asquith, but they all exploded in post offices, post boxes or in mailbags while in transit across the country.[25] In the following weeks, further attacks on letters and mailboxes occurred in cities such as Coventry, London, Edinburgh, Northampton, and York,[25] and in Aberdeen, thick black ink was used to obliterate addresses in postal boxes.[11]

    On 6 February five

    postmen were burned, four severely, in Dundee when handling a phosphorus suffragette letter bomb addressed to Asquith.[1][26][27] On 19 February, there was a suffragette bomb attack on Lloyd George's house, Pinfold Manor, with two bombs planted perhaps by Emily Davison.[28] Only one of the bombs functioned but the building was seriously damaged, although nobody was injured.[6] The explosion occurred shortly before the arrival of workmen at the house, and the crude nature of the timer – a candle – meant that the likelihood of the bomb exploding while the men were present was high.[6] WSPU Leader Emmeline Pankhurst was herself arrested in the aftermath for planning the attack on Lloyd George's house, and was later sentenced to three years in prison.[29][30] Between February and March, railway signal wires were purposely cut on lines across the country, further endangering train journeys.[31][32]

    Some of the inspiration for the suffragettes' attacks came from the earlier Fenian dynamite campaign of 1881 to 1885.[33] Although more sophisticated explosive devices were used by suffragettes, inspiration was taken from this campaign's tactic of targeting symbolic locations, such as the Bank of England and St Paul's Cathedral.[33]

    In May 1913, the Ashley Road Public School in Aberdeen had its roof destroyed by fire, with arson materials and The Suffragist newspaper found.

    golf courses were often subjected to arson attacks.[38] During some of these attacks Prime Minister Asquith would be physically assaulted while playing the sport.[38] And some politician's private gardens were vandalised with plants pulled out or grass burned with acid and slogan 'Votes for Women' left, including at the home of Aberdeen's Lord Provost, Adam Maitland. [11]

    Response to Emmeline Pankhurst's imprisonment

    In April 1913 a bomb was planted in the public street outside the Bank of England

    On 4 April, the day after Emmeline Pankhurst was sentenced to 3 years in prison for her role in the bombing of Lloyd George's house, a suffragette bomb was discovered in the street outside the

    City of London Police Museum in London.[41]

    A few days later, grass was cut to display 'Release Mrs. Pankhurst' and the Palm-house greenhouse vandalised with ink in Aberdeen's Duthie Park.[11]

    Railways were also the subject of bombing attacks. On 3 April, a bomb exploded next to a passing train in

    railway porter spotted smoke in a previously crowded third-class carriage.[43] Later in the day, as the Waterloo train pulled into Kingston, the third-class carriage exploded and caught fire.[39] The rest of the carriages were full of passengers at the time, but they managed to escape without serious injury.[39] The bombs had been packed with lumps of jagged metal, bullets and scraps of lead.[39]

    The

    nitroglycerine bomb was discovered on the platform at Piccadilly Circus tube station.[44][45][46] Although it had the potential to harm many members of the public on the platform, the bomb was dealt with.[46] On 11 April, the cricket pavilion at the Nevill Ground in Royal Tunbridge Wells was destroyed in a suffragette arson attack.[47] At many of the attacks, copies of The Suffragette newspaper were intentionally left at the scene, or postcards scrawled with messages such as "Votes For Women", to claim responsibility for the attacks.[48][1]

    The high explosive nitroglycerine was used for a number of suffragette bombs, and was likely produced by themselves in their own labs by sympathisers.[49] The explosive is distinctly unstable, and nitroglycerine bombs could be detonated by as little as a sharp blow, making the bombs highly dangerous.[50]

    The Nevill Ground Pavilion, Royal Tunbridge Wells, after it was destroyed in an arson attack

    During this time, elderly suffragette ladies had reportedly begun to apply for gun licenses, supposedly to "terrify the authorities".

    MP Arthur Du Cros was burned down.[51] Du Cros had consistently voted against the enfranchisement of women, which was why he had been chosen as a target.[51] The immediate aftermath of the destruction of Du Cros's house was caught on film, with newsreel company Pathé filming the ruins while they were still smouldering.[52] Some newspapers were also targeted by suffragettes: on 20 April there was an attempt to blow up the offices of the York Herald in York.[53]

    One bomb that was found in

    bishop's throne and other parts of the cathedral had it exploded.[54] Meanwhile, suffragette action continued to cause injury to postal workers, with three London postmen being injured after coming into contact with noxious chemicals that had been poured into pillar boxes.[55]

    On 14 May, a letter bomb was sent to allegedly anti-women's suffrage

    Liverpool Street Station, London, covered with iron nuts and bolts intended to maximise damage to property and cause serious injury to anyone in proximity.[40] Four days later, another three suffragette bombs were discovered in the third-class carriage of a crowded passenger train arriving from Waterloo at Kingston, made out of nitroglycerine.[59] On 16 May, a second attempted bombing of the London Underground was foiled when a bomb was discovered at Westbourne Park tube station before it could explode.[54] Another attack on the railways occurred on 27 May, when a suffragette bomb was thrown from an express train onto Reading station platform and exploded, but there were no injuries.[60]

    During the month of May, 52 bombing and arson attacks had been carried out across the country by suffragettes.[21]

    Targeting of houses

    The most common target for suffragette attacks during the campaign was houses or residential properties belonging to politicians or members of the public.

    Hampstead Garden were also set on fire.[20][23] In Ilford, London, three residential streets had their fire alarm wires cut.[1] Other prominent opponents of women's suffrage also saw their homes destroyed by fire and incendiary devices, sometimes as a response to police raids on WSPU offices.[64] Relatives of politicians also saw their houses attacked: the Mill House near Liphook, Hampshire was burned because the owner was Reginald McKenna's brother Theodore, while a bomb was set off in a house in Moor Hall Green, Birmingham, as the property was owned by Arthur Chamberlain, brother of Conservative politician Joseph Chamberlain (father to future Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain).[65][66] Houses were also attacked in Doncaster. After some suffragettes were thrown out of a political meeting there in June 1913, the house of the man who had thrown them out was burned down.[67] In response to such actions, angry mobs often attacked WSPU meetings, such as in May 1913 when 1,000 people attacked a WSPU meeting in Doncaster.[68] In retaliation, suffragettes burned down more properties in the local area.[68]

    Deaths and further injuries

    Portsmouth dockyard
    in December 1913 killed 2 men

    In early June 1913, a series of fires purposely started in rural areas in

    lock for 11 miles, a breach would have emptied all this section's water into the populated valley below, which likely would have caused a loss of life.[70][71]

    The next day, a suffragette named Harry Hewitt pulled out a

    King's personal horse, an incident which not only killed her but that seriously injured the jockey.[73]

    On 19 July 1913, letter boxes were filled with noxious substances across

    Holloway Prison in protest of the imprisonment of an inmate inside.[54][49] Many houses near the prison were damaged or had their windows blown out by the bombs, showering some children with glass while they slept in their beds.[77] One of the perpetrators of the attack was injured by the blast.[78]

    In one of the more serious suffragette attacks, a fire was purposely started at

    Portsmouth dockyard on 20 December 1913, in which 2 men were killed after it spread through the industrial area.[79][80][81] In the midst of the firestorm, a battlecruiser, HMS Queen Mary, had to be towed to safety to avoid the flames.[80] Then, two days before Christmas, several postal workers in Nottingham were severely burned after more suffragette letter bombs caused mail bags to ignite.[82]

    By the end of the year, The Times newspaper reported that there had been 39 recorded suffragette bombing attacks across the country.[83]

    1914 attacks

    Contemporary literature showing the damage to the Britannia Pier, Great Yarmouth after it was bombed and burned down by suffragettes in 1914[84][1]

    Arson and bombing attacks continued into 1914. One of the first attacks of the year took place on 7 January, when a

    servants inside, and they narrowly escaped harm.[26] The next month, another cabinet minister, Home Secretary Reginald McKenna, had his house set on fire in an arson attack.[23]

    Rosslyn Chapel in Scotland, one of many churches bombed by suffragettes[30]

    One common target for suffragette attacks was

    St Martins-in-the-Field church in Trafalgar Square, London, was bombed, blowing out the windows and showering passers-by with broken glass.[30][87][77] A bomb was also discovered in the Metropolitan Tabernacle church in London, and in June, a bomb exploded at Westminster Abbey, damaging the Coronation Chair.[30][1][88] The Abbey was busy with visitors at the time, and around 80–100 people were in the building when the bomb exploded.[89][90] The device was most probably planted by a member of a group that had left the Abbey only moments before the explosion.[89] Some were as close as 20 yards from the bomb at the time and the explosion caused a panic for the exits, but no serious injuries were reported.[90] The bomb had been packed with nuts and bolts to act as shrapnel.[90]

    Coincidentally, at the time of the explosion, the

    detectives, was arrested as she left.[91] The congregation left in the church then was able to disarm the bomb before it exploded.[91]

    A

    Holloway Prison, Dr. Forward, was also assaulted in a public street with whips.[23][93] Another individual was injured in July when a suffragette letter bomb ignited a moving train in Salwick.[82] After the bomb caused a train carriage to catch fire, the train's guard attempted to throw the burning materials off the train to avoid further damage.[82] In doing so, he was badly burned on his arms, although he succeeded in disposing of the material.[82] Another attempt to flood a populated area had also taken place on 7 May, when a bomb was placed next to Penistone Reservoir in Upper Windleden.[49][94] If successful, the attack would have led to 138 million gallons of water emptying into the populated valleys below, although the anticipated breach did not take place.[94]

    Aborted plots

    Some attacks were voluntarily aborted before they were carried out. In March 1913, a suffragette plot to

    cabinet ministers and subjecting them to force-feeding.[95]

    According to Special Branch detectives, there were also WSPU plans in 1913 to create a suffragette "army", known as the "People's Training Corps".[96] A detective reported attending a meeting in which 300 young girls and women gathered ready to be trained, supposedly with the eventual aim of proceeding in force to Downing Street to forcibly imprison ministers until they conceded women's suffrage.[96] The group were nicknamed "Mrs Pankhurst's Army".[96]

    Outbreak of war and ending of the campaign

    In August 1914 the

    First World War began, which effectively led the end of the suffragette bombing and arson campaign.[97] After Britain joined the war, the WSPU took the decision to suspend their own campaigning.[1] Leader Emmeline Pankhurst instructed suffragettes to stop their violent actions and support the government in the conflict against Germany.[98] From this point forward, suffragettes instead largely channelled their energies into supporting the war effort.[30] By the time of the outbreak of war, the aim of achieving votes for women was still unrealised.[99] Later in the war, the increasing focus of the WSPU and the Pankhurst leadership on supporting the war effort led to the creation of the Women's Party, a political party that continued to promote women's suffrage but that was primarily concerned with patriotic support for the war.[30]

    Reaction to the campaign

    General public

    The violence employed by suffragettes caused angry reactions amongst some members of the general public, with some actions inciting violent responses in return. A month after the bombing attack on Lloyd George's house in February 1913, a WSPU rally was held in

    Bristol University's sports pavilion on 23 October 1913, undergraduates avenged the attack by raiding the WSPU office in the city.[70]

    Wider women's suffrage movement

    The "suffragists" of the largest women's suffrage society, the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, led by Millicent Fawcett, were anti-violence, and during the campaign NUWSS propaganda and Fawcett herself increasingly differentiated between the militants of the WSPU and their own non-violent means.[101][102] The NUWSS also publicly distanced themselves from the violence and direct action of suffragettes.[1] The other major women's suffrage society, the Women's Freedom League, also opposed the violence publicly.[103]

    Special Branch response

    The

    counter-terrorist Special Branch of London's Metropolitan Police, which had been set up during the earlier Fenian dynamite campaign of 1881–1885, bore responsibility for dealing with the campaign.[104] Special Branch officers were employed to cover WSPU meetings and demonstrations in order to pre-empt offences, provide public order intelligence and to record inflammatory speeches.[105] WSPU leaders had been followed by Special Branch officers from 1907 onwards, and Emmeline Pankhurst herself was trailed by officers from the branch.[2][106] A separate suffragette section of the branch had been formed in 1909.[106]

    During the campaign, attempts to attend WSPU meetings became increasingly difficult as officers were recognised and attacked.

    Jennie Baines, a half-made bomb, a fully made bomb and guns were found.[21] Raids were also conducted against the offices of The Suffragette newspaper, and the printers were threatened with prosecution.[108] Because of this, there were periods that the newspaper could not publish, but secret reserves were kept for the newspaper to publish as many issues as possible.[22][109]

    At the time, planting bombs was officially a hangable offence, and so suffragettes took special measures to avoid being caught by police when carrying out bombing attacks.[48]

    Impact and effectiveness

    A 1913 cartoon, showing "Dame London" welcoming a suffragist, while behind her a suffragette holding a bomb threatens London

    At the conclusion of the campaign in August 1914, the attacks had, in total, cost approximately £700,000 in damages (equivalent to £84,850,000 in 2023), although according to historian C. J. Bearman this figure does not include "the damage done to works of art or the more minor forms of militancy such as window-smashing and letter-burning".

    tourist attractions such as Haddon Hall and the State Apartments at Windsor Castle were closed for fear of suffragette attacks".[110] With these additional considerations, Bearman asserts, the campaign cost the British economy between £1 and £2 million in 1913 to 1914 alone (approximately £130–£240 million today).[110] There was an average of 21 bombing and arson incidents per month in 1913, and 15 per month in 1914, with there being an arson or bombing attack in every month between February 1913 and August 1914.[111] Bearman calculates that there was a total of at least 337 arson and bombing attacks between 1913 and 1914, but states that the true number could be well over 500.[110] By the end of the campaign, more than 1,300 people had been arrested and imprisoned for suffragette violence across the United Kingdom.[112]

    The extent to which suffragette militancy contributed to the eventual enfranchisement of women

    East London Federation of Suffragettes in 1914.[1] Bearman has asserted that contemporary opinion overwhelmingly was of the view that WSPU violence had shelved the question of women's suffrage until the organization "came to its senses or had disappeared from the scene".[117] At the time it was largely only suffragettes themselves that argued their campaign had been effective.[117]

    In the 1930s, soon after all women over the age of 21 had received the vote under the

    archives.[21]

    Some

    feminist historians and supporters of feminist icon Emmeline Pankhurst such as Sandra Stanley Horton and June Purvis have also renewed the arguments that militancy succeeded, with Purvis arguing that assertions about the counter-productiveness of militancy deny or diminish the achievements of Pankhurst.[118] However, Purvis's arguments have been challenged by Bearman.[113] Revisionist historians such as Harrison and Martin Pugh have also attempted to draw greater attention to the role of the non-militants, such as those in the anti-violence National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) (known as "suffragists"), and emphasised their understated role in gaining votes for women.[119]

    Classification as terrorism

    During the campaign, the WSPU described its own bombing and arson attacks as

    Pall Mall Gazette reported the attack under the specific headline of "Suffragette Terrorism".[25]

    The bombing and arson campaign has seen classification as a

    single-issue terrorism campaign by academics,[124][125][126] and is classified as such in The Oxford Handbook of Terrorism.[127] Many historians have also asserted that the campaign contained terrorist acts. Rachel Monaghan published three articles in 1997, 2000 and 2007 in terrorism-themed academic journals in which she argued that the campaign can be described as one that was terrorist in nature.[128][124][129] In 2005, historian C. J. Bearman published a study on the bombing and arson campaign in which he asserted: "The intention of the campaign was certainly terrorist in terms of the word's definition, which according to the Concise Oxford Dictionary (1990 edition) is 'a person who uses or favours violent and intimidating methods of coercing a government or community'. The intention of coercing the community is clearly expressed in the WSPU's Seventh Annual Report, and, according to Annie Kenney, that of coercing Parliament was endorsed by Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst themselves. The question is therefore not whether the campaign was terrorist, or whether the WSPU (in 1912–14) can be called a terrorist organization, but whether its terrorism worked."[130] Bearman later published a further article in 2007 which also claims that the suffragette campaign was a terrorist one.[131]

    just war.[130] Other historians who have asserted that the campaign involved terrorism include Paula Bartley, Laura Mayhall and George Legg.[132][133][33]

    letter bombs by suffragettes can be seen to call into question whether the WSPU truly aimed to avoid endangering human life, while C. J. Bearman has criticised Purvis directly, claiming that it is inaccurate to state that the WSPU was not responsible for the actions of its paid members, and has called this assertion "grotesque".[26][135] Purvis maintains that those who support the assertion that the suffragettes committed acts of terror "seek to condemn these radical women who were campaigning for their democratic right to the parliamentary vote".[24]

    Influence on later campaigns

    The campaign in part provided the inspiration for later bombing and terrorist campaigns in Britain, such as those conducted by the Irish Republican Army (IRA).[99] The S-Plan of 1939 to 1940 utilised the tactic of undertaking incendiary attacks on pillar boxes, and also saw the planting of explosive devices.[99] The tactic of packing nuts and bolts into bombs to act as shrapnel, often regarded as a later twentieth-century IRA invention, was also first employed by the suffragettes.[40] Several suffragette bombings, such as the attempted bombing of Liverpool Street station in 1913, saw the use of this method.[40] The combination of high explosive bombs, incendiary devices and letter bombs used by suffragettes also provided the pattern for the IRA campaigns of the 1970s and 1980s.[136] Unknown to many, the first terrorist bomb to explode in Northern Ireland in the twentieth century was not detonated by the IRA but by the suffragettes at Lisburn Cathedral in August 1914.[136] Suffragette tactics also provided a template for more contemporary attacks in Britain.[2]

    Timeline of the campaign

    See also: List of suffragette bombings

    Below is a timeline of some of the major recorded events in the campaign:

    1912

    1913

    1914

    • 7 January 1914: A dynamite bomb is thrown over the wall of the Harewood Barracks in Leeds, which is being used to train police officers. The explosion injures one man.[85]
    • 4 February 1914: Aberuchill Castle in Scotland is burned down by the suffragettes. The servants inside narrowly escape without being killed.[26]
    • 5 April 1914: A bomb explodes in St Martin-in-the-Fields church in Trafalgar Square, London, blowing out the windows and showering passers-by with broken glass. The explosion also starts a fire.[30][87][77]
    • 17 April 1914: The Britannia Pier, Great Yarmouth is destroyed after being bombed and burned down.[84][1]
    • 7 May 1914: An attempt to flood a populated area fails after a bomb is placed next to Penistone Reservoir in Upper Windleden. If successful, the attack would have led to 138 million gallons of water emptying into the populated valleys below.[49][94]
    • 11 May 1914: A bomb is discovered at the Metropolitan Tabernacle church and defused.[30][1]
    • 11 June 1914: A bomb explodes at Westminster Abbey; damaging the Coronation Chair.[30][1][88]
    • 13 June 1914: A second bomb is discovered before it can explode in St Paul's Cathedral.[1]
    • 11 July 1914: A guard is severely burned when a letter bomb ignites a carriage on a moving train in Salwick. The guard is badly burned on his arms as he throws the burning letter bomb off the train to avoid further damage.[82]

    See also

    References

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    3. ^ The Times, 29 October 1909
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    8. ^ Riddell 2018, p. 117.
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    10. ^ Riddell 2018, p. 137.
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    30. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Suffragette bombings - City of London Corporation". Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
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    Bibliography

    External links
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