Achomawi
Regions with significant populations | |
---|---|
California | |
Languages | |
English, formerly Achumawi | |
San Diego State University |
Achomawi (also Achumawi, Ajumawi and Ahjumawi) are the northerly nine (out of eleven) bands of the
Population
Achomawi speaking territories reached from
Language
The
Historical culture
Lodging and villages
Each of the nine tribes in the "Achomawi" language group had defined separate territories up and down the banks of the Pit River (which they called "Achoma"). Within their respective territories, each band had several villages, which were apparently composed of extended family members, and had about 20-60 inhabitants per village. The bands were organized by having one central village with smaller satellite villages. The lower Pit River bands existed in a more densely forested mountain zone, while the upper Pit River bands had a drier sage brush and juniper zone. Their housing, food sources, and seasonal movements therefore also varied. In the summer, the Achomawi band, and other upper Pit River bands usually lived in cone-shaped homes covered in
Family life
In marriage, the
When children were born, the parents were put into seclusion and had food restrictions while waiting for their baby's umbilical cord to fall off. If twins were born, one of them was killed at birth.[12]
The Achomawi buried their dead in a flexed position, on the side, facing east; at times they were placed in woven baskets at burial. Those who died outside the community were
For leisure, women within the community would play a double ball game.[11] The Achomawi also built and used sweat lodges.[13]
Dress and body art
Achomawi men wore
Subsistence
The Achomawi fished, hunted and gathered from around the area.
Fishing
Fishing was a major source of food supply for the Achomawi. The
Fishermen used nets, baskets and spears to fish, and
Aside from traps, other tools were made and used by the community for fishing blue rose is the first time to see, including
The three dip nets were shaped like bags. One type, called taláka'yi, was suspended on the prongs of a forked pole, and was used from a canoe, land, or from wading and was used for catching suckers,
The other two nets were generally used for capturing trout and pike. The gill net, called tuwátifshi, was 40 to 60 feet long and was weighted with stones to sink it. One end was fasted to a tree and the other to a buoy; when a fish was captured the buoy would move. The seine, talámámchi, was six to feet in depth and extended across the stream from one side to the other in calm water. Stones were used to sink the lower edge, and buoys were used on the upper edge. The fisherman would sit in a canoe at one bank, and a pulley was attached to the opposite shore. When the net was tugged upon by the fish, the fisherman would haul in the float line with the pulley to remove the catch.[16]
Hunting
Due to the dry nature of the Achomawi's land, deer was not always abundant, hence their unique way of hunting deer compared to other Californian Natives America.[15] A deep pit would be dug along a deer trail, covered with brush, the trail restored including adding deer tracks using a hoof, and all dirt and human evidence taken away. The settlers' cattle would also fall in these pits, so much so that the settlers convinced the people to stop this practice. The pits were most numerous near the river because the deer came down to drink and so the river is named for these trapping pits.[18] Deer hunting was always preceded by ritual. Rituals also existed that did not involve the hunting process but involved the avoidance of deer meat. Adolescent girls would stuff their nostrils with fragrant herbs to avoid smelling venison being cooked while going through their maturity ceremony.[15]
Waterfowl, like ducks, were snared by a noose stretched across streams. Rabbits would be driven into nets.[15]
Gathering
A variety of foodstuffs was gathered by the Achomawi people throughout the year.
Religion
Adolescent boys sought guardian spirits called tinihowi and both genders experienced
Achomawi
Puberty rites
A girl would begin her puberty ritual by having her ears pierced by her father or another relative. She would then be picked up, dropped, and then hit with an old basket, before running away. During this part, her father would pray to the mountains for her. The girl would return in the evening with a load of wood, another symbol of women's roles within the community, like the basket. She would then build a fire in front of her house and dance around it throughout the night, with relatives participating; around the fire or inside the house. Music would accompany the dance, made by a deer hoof rattle. During the ritual time, she would have herbs stuffed up her nose to avoid smelling venison being cooked. In the morning, she would be picked up and dropped again, and she would run off with the deer hoof rattle. This repeated for five days and nights. On the fifth night, she would return from her run to be sprinkled with fir leaves and bathed, completing the ritual.[26]
Boys’ puberty rites were similar to the girls ritual but adds shamanistic elements. The boys ears are pierced, and then he is hit with a bowstring and runs away to fast and bathe in a lake or spring. While he is gone, his father prays for the mountains and the Deer Woman to watch over the boy. In the morning, he returns, lighting fires during his trip home and eats outside the home and then runs away again. He stays several nights away, lighting fires, piling up stones and drinking through a reed so that his teeth would not come into contact with water. If he sees an animal on the first night in the lake or spring or dream of an animal; that animal would become his personal protector. If the boy has a vision like this, he will become a shaman.[26]
War traditions and weaponry
In general Achomawi held a significantly negative view of actual warfare, finding it be an undesirable outcome. Joining in a battle or killing an enemy was believed to give a particular contamination. Only through "a rigorous program of purification" could an individual remove it.
Arts
Basket-making
The Achomawi follow in the tradition of other California tribes, with their skills in basketry. Baskets are made of willow and are colored with
Most baskets are covered in a light white overlay of xerophyllum tenax, though it is believed that those covered in xerophyllum tenax are for trade and sale only, not for daily use. The xerophyllum tenax protects the baskets artwork and materials when used, helpful for when boiling or holding water. Anthropologist Alfred Kroeber believed that by 1925 the Achomawi were no longer cooking in baskets, and were merely making them for sale and trade.[11]
Canoes
The Achomawi made simple
History
Early history
Relations with the nearby Atsugewi speakers were traditionally favorable for the majority of Achomawi. Yet the close proximity between the Illmawi band of Achomawi and the Atsugewi inhabitants of Hat Creek (haatiiw̓iw), the Atsuge (haatííw̓iwí - ″Hat Creek People″, own name: atuwanúúci), were terse. These bad feelings arose in part from particular Atsuge trespassing upon Illmawi territory while traveling through to collect obsidian from the nearby Glass Mountain (sáttít - ″flint place″, also name for Medicine Lake).[28]
In their networks with neighboring cultures Achomawi exchanged their furs, basketry,
Contact between the Achomawi and Atsugewi speakers with the
The Madesi band, Achomawi residents around modern Big Bend, had particularly cordial relationships with the Wintun. The nearby Shasta (sástayci / sastííci - ″Shasta people″) and Yana (tʰísayci - ″Yana people″) were "powerful enemies" that would on occasion attack Madesi settlements.[32]
European contact
In 1828
Late 19th and 20th centuries
In 1871 community members participated in the first
Present day
The majority of Achomawi people are enrolled in the federally recognized Pit River Tribe. The tribe consists of several autonomous bands - nine Achomawi and two (perhaps three) Atsugewi bands:
Upriver Achomawi (Eastern Achomawi)
- h̓ééwíssátééwi (“Highland People”),[33] h̓ééwíssáy̓tuwí (“Goose Lake People”), usually Hewisedawi/Hay-wee-see-daw-wee/Hewise (″Those from On Top″, "The People Who Live High Up"): several Hewise villages were situated around the Goose Lake, their territory stretched from Fandango Valley south through the Warner Mountains to Cedar Pass; west across the Pit River and out onto the high plateau area called Devils Garden; north up to the west side of Goose Lake. Other villages were located in the south of the territory along the Pit River and out on the Devils Garden area; usually referred to as "Goose Lake Achomawi" or "Goose Lake People"
- astaaqííw̓awí, usually Astarawi / Astariwawi; in Atsugewi Astakwaini owte (both: "Hot [Springs] People"): their four settlements were located along the Pit River in the area of Canby, California and the nearby hot springs; usually referred to as "Hot Springs Achomawi" or “Canby People”
- q̓úsyálléq̓tawi, q̓ússiálláq̓tawí, q̓óssi álláq̓tawí, usually Kosealekte/Kosalektawi/Qosalektawi ("Juniper liking People"); in Atsugewi Astakwaini owte ("Hot Springs People"): their three settlements were located in the headwaters of the Pit River southwards to the area of Alturas, California; usually referred to as "Alturas Achomawi"
- h̓ámmááw̓i (“Upriver People", "High Plateau People"), usually Hammawi ("South Fork of Pit River People"); in Atsugewi Apishi: their main village Hamawe/Hammawi was in the vicinity of Likely, California (formerly South Fork) at the South Fork of the Pit River, another eight settlements were also located along the South Fork; usually referred to as "Likely Achomawi"
- atw̓áámi ("Valley People") or atw̓ámsini ("Valley Dwellers"), usually Atuami/Atwamwi or Atwamsini; in Atsugewi Akui owte ("Big Vally People"): their 27 settlements were located along Ash Creek and Pit River in the high country of Big Valley; usually referred to as "Big Valley Achomawi" or “Big Valley People”
Downriver Achomawi (Western Achomawi)
- acúmmááwi (“[Pit] River People”), wannúkyumiʔ (“Fall River People”), usually Ajumawi/Achumawi/Achomawi proper ("River People"); in Atsugewi Dicowi owte (“Fall River People”): their 17 settlements were located along the Fall River and Pit River (acúmmá - "river") up to Fall River Mills, California; usually referred to as "Fall River Achomawi" or “Fall River Mills People”
- ílmááwi (“Canyon People”), usually Ilmawi/Ilmewi/Ilmiwi ("People of the Village of Ilma"); in Atsugewi Apahezarini: occupied 13 settlements along Pit River from the mouth of Burney Creek to a few miles below Fall River Mills; usually referred to as "Cayton Valley Achomawi"
- iic̓áátawí (“Burney Valley People”), usually Itsatawi ("Goose Valley People"); in Atsugewi Bomari owte (“Pit River People”): their 25 settlements centered on the Goose Valley and the lower Burney Creek area; had close ties to the Madesi; usually referred to as “Goose Valley Achomawi”
- matéési, usually Madesi (Mah-day-see/Madessawi)[34] (“People of the Village of Mah-dess' (Big Bend)”, “Madesi Valley People”); in Atsugewi Dakyupeni or Psicamuci (no translation): their territory included Big Bend and its Hot Springs and the surrounding area of the Lower Pit River (Ah-choo'-mah in the Madesi dialect), and several of its tributaries, such as Kosk Creek (An-noo-che'che) and Nelson Creek (Ah-lis'choo'-chah). Their main village Mah-dess' or Mah-dess' Atjwam (″Madesi Valley″) was on the north bank of the Pit River, east of Kosk Creek, and was directly across the river from the smaller villages that surrounded the hot springs on the river's south bank, which were called Oo-le'-moo-me, Lah'-lah-pis'-mah, and Al-loo-satch-ha.; usually referred to as "Big Bend Achomawi" or “Big Bend People”, sometimes as “Montgomery Creek People”[35]
and the two (perhaps three?) Atsugewi bands[36]
- haatííw̓iwí; in Atsugewi Atuwanúúci (both: “Hat Creek People”), usually Atsugewi; in Atsugewi Atsugé (both: "Pine-tree People"): their five settlements were mainly along Mount Lassenand the Pit River as well as along Burney Creek (the families settling there are sometimes considered a separate Wamari'i / Wamari'l band); usually referred to as “Hat Creek Indians” or “Pine Tree Tribe”
- ammítci (“People of Ammít, i.e. Dixie Valley”), usually Apwarugewi; in Atsugewi Aporige / Apwaruge ("People of Apwariwa, i.e. Dixie Valley") or Mahuopani ("Juniper-tree People"): their 12 settlements were located along Beaver Creek, Pine Creek, Willow Creek, Susan River and on the shores of Eagle Lake and Horse Lake, but their main settlement area was along Horse Creek in Little Valley and Dixie Valley; usually referred to as “Horse Creek Indians” or "Dixie Valley Tribe"Willow Creek (Lassen County, California)
- wanúmcíw̓awí; in Atsugewi Wamari'i / Wamari'l (both: "Burney Valley People"): their settlements were located along the Burney Creek up to its confluence with the Pit River (mostly counted among the Atsugewi band)); usually referred to as “Hat Creek Indians” or “Pine Tree Tribe”
that since time immemorial have resided in the area known as the 100-mile (160 km) square, located in parts of
There is a Housing Authority that through Government grants has developed community housing projects, such as housing for low income families and elders. The Tribe operates a Day Care center, and environmental program. The Pit River Tribe currently operates Pit River Casino, a Class III gaming facility located on 79 acres (320,000 m2) in Burney, California.[citation needed]
Today there are around 1,800 tribal members enrolled in contemporary Achumawi
- Pit River Tribe (Achomawi bands: Ajumawi, Astarawi, Atwamsini, Hammawi, Hewisedawi, Ilmawi, Itsatawi, Kosalektawi, and Madesi, Atsugewi bands: Atsuge and Aporige)
- Alturas Indian Rancheria[3] (Achomawi name: q̓ússiálláq̓tawí / q̓óssi álláq̓tawí - "Kosealekte/Kosalektawi/Qosalektawi" or "Alturas/Altʰúúlas Achomawi"; Population: 0 living on rancheria)
- Big Bend Rancheria[3] (Achomawi name: matéési - "Madesi (Mah-day-see/Madessawi)" or "Big Bend Achomawi"; Population: 5 living on rancheria)
- Likely Rancheria[3] (Achomawi name: h̓ámmááw̓i - "Hammawi" or "Likely Achomawi"; Population: 0 living on rancheria)
- Lookout Rancheria[3] (Population: 21 living on rancheria)
- Montgomery Creek Rancheria[3] (Achomawi name: íípʰuníw̓ca or íípʰuunídial/íípʰuurí - "Madesi (Mah-day-see/Madessawi)" or "Montgomery Creek [Achomawi]"; Population: 4 living on rancheria)
The following rancherias are shared with other communities:
- Redding Rancheria (Wintu, Achomawi bands, and Yana; Population: 24 living on rancheria)
- Roaring Creek Rancheria.[3][38] (Achomawi and Atsugewi bands; Population: 18 living on rancheria)
- Northern Paiute, and Atsugewi; Population: 1,272 with 342 living on rancheria)
- XL Ranch[3] (Achomawi and Atsugewi bands, and some Northern Paiute; Population: 62 living on rancheria)
- Big Valley Rancheria (Achomawi name: atw̓áámi / atw̓ámsini - "Atwamsini (Atuami/Atwamwi)" or "Big Valley Achomawi"; Xa-Ben-Na-Po Band of Eastern (Clear Lake) Pomo and Achomawi; Population: 168 living on rancheria)
- Wailaki, and Achomawi; Population: 68 living on rancheria)
- Lytton Band of Pomo Indians (Achomawi, Nomlaki, and Gualála (Ahkhawalalee) Pomo; Population: 0 living on rancheria)
- Picayune Rancheria (Chukchansi Yokuts, Pomo, and approximately 60 other tribes; Population: 65 living on rancheria.)
See also
References
- ^ Nevin, Bruce E. (1998), "Aspects of Pit River phonology" (PDF), Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania
- ^ Merriam, C. Hart, The Classification and Distribution of The Pit River Indian Tribes of California. Smithsonian Institution (Publication 2874), Volume 78, Number 3, 1926
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Waldman 2006, pp. 2–3.
- ^ a b Kroeber 1925, p. 308.
- ^ Kniffen 1928, p. 318.
- ^ Garth 1953, p. 177.
- ^ a b Curtis 1924, p. 135.
- ^ "ACHOMAWI". Four Directions Institute. 2007. Archived from the original on February 14, 2002. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Mithun 1999:470-472
- ^ Golla 2011, pp. 84–111.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Kroeber 1925, p. 310.
- ^ a b c Kroeber 1925, p. 313.
- ^ a b c San Francisco State University 2011.
- ^ a b "Subsistence". Achumawi. College of the Siskiyous. Archived from the original on 8 November 2011. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Kroeber 1925, p. 309.
- ^ a b c d Curtis 1924, p. 136.
- ^ a b c Curtis 1924, p. 137.
- ^ Stephen Powers * Tribes of California*, p. 269 (Regents of the University of California, foreword by R. Heizer, 1976)
- ^ Kniffen 1928, p. 301.
- ISBN 0-8165-1283-3.
- ^ Kroeber 1925, p. 315.
- ^ a b Dixon 1904, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Golla 2011, pp. 38–39.
- ^ Powell, John Wesley (1880). Introduction to the study of Indian languages with words, phrases and sentences to be collected (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. pp. 9.
- ^ Olmsted, David L. Achumawi Dictionary. University of California Publications in Linguistics. Vol. 45. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
- ^ a b Kroeber 1925, p. 314.
- ^ Garth 1953, p. 182.
- ^ Kniffen 1928, pp. 313, 316.
- ^ Garth 1953, p. 185.
- ^ Spier 1930, p. 31.
- ^ Kniffen 1928, p. 309.
- ^ Kniffen 1928, p. 314.
- ^ Achomawi dictionary
- ^ Big Bend Hot Springs Project - Pit River Native Indigenous Languages
- ^ Big Bend Hot Springs Project - Big Bend and Big Bend Hot Springs History
- ^ Thomas R. Garth - ATSUGEWI ETHNOGRAPHY
- ^ Pit River Docket No. 347, (7 ICC 815 at 844), Indian Claims Commission; see also Olmsted and Stewart 1978:226.
- ^ "California Indians and Their Reservations." Archived 2010-07-26 at the Wayback Machine San Diego State University Library and Information Access. 2009 (retrieved 15 Dec 2009)
Bibliography
- ISBN 978-0-7426-9813-0, retrieved 21 November 2011
- JSTOR 533984.
- Golla, Victor (2011), California Indian Languages, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-26667-4
- Garth, Thomas R. (1953), Atsugewi Ethnography, Anthropological Records, vol. 14, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 129–212
- Kniffen, Fred B. (1928), Achomawi Geography, University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. 23, University of California Press, pp. 297–332
- Kroeber, Alfred Louis (1925), Handbook of the Indians of California, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, retrieved 28 January 2018
- San Francisco State University, Encyclopedia of Native American tribes, archived from the original on 19 October 2011, retrieved 20 November 2011
- Spier, Leslie (1930), Kroeber, Alfred L.; Lowie, Robert (eds.), Klamath Ethnography, University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. 30, University of California Press, pp. 1–338
- Waldman, Carl (September 2006), Encyclopedia of Native American tribes, Infobase Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8160-6274-4, retrieved 21 November 2011
Further reading
- Evans, Nancy H., 1994. "Pit River," in Native America in the Twentieth Century: An Encyclopedia, ed. Mary B. Davis (NY: Garland Pub. Co).
- Garth, T. R. 1978. "Atsugewi". In California, edited by Robert F. Heizer, pp. 236–243. Handbook of North American Indians, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, vol. 8. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
- Jaimes, M. Annette, 1987. "The Pit River Indian Claim Dispute in Northern California," Journal of Ethnic Studies, 14(4): 47–74.
- Mithun, Marianne. 1999. The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge University Press.
- Olmsted, D.L. and Omer C. Stewart. 1978. "Achumawi" in Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 8 (California), pp. 225–235. William C. Sturtevant, and Robert F. Heizer, eds. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-004578-9/0160045754.
- Tiller, Veronica E. Velarde, 1996. Tiller's Guide to Indian Country (Albuquerque: BowArrow Pub. Co.): see X-L Ranch Reservation, pp. 308–09. There is a new later edition, 2005.
External links
- Official website of the Pit River Tribe
- A bibliography for the Achomawi from Shasta Public Libraries
- Achomawi Bibliography, from California Indian Library Collections Project