Andromeda (mythology)
Andromeda | |
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In
As a subject, Andromeda has been popular in art since classical antiquity; rescued by a Greek hero, Andromeda's narration is considered the forerunner to the "princess and dragon" motif. From the Renaissance, interest revived in the original story, typically as derived from Ovid's Metamorphoses. The story has appeared many times in such diverse media as plays, poetry, novels, operas, classical and popular music, film, and paintings. A significant part of the northern sky contains several constellations named after the story's figures; in particular, the constellation Andromeda is named after her.
The Andromeda tradition, from classical antiquity onwards, has incorporated elements of other stories, including
Etymology
The name Andromeda is from the Greek Ἀνδρομέδα, Androméda, perhaps meaning 'mindful of her husband'. The name is from the noun ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός, anēr, andrós meaning 'man', and a verb, whether μεδεσθαι, medesthai, 'to be mindful of', μέδω, mēdein, 'to protect, rule over', or μήδομαι, mēdomai, 'to deliberate, contrive, decide', all related to μήδεια, mēdeia, 'plans, cunning', the likely origin of the name of Medea, the sorceress.[6]
Classical mythology
Central story
In
Andromeda follows her husband to his native island of
According to the Catasterismi, Andromeda is placed in the sky by Athena as the constellation Andromeda, in a pose with her limbs outstretched, similar to when she was chained to the rock, in commemoration of Perseus' bravery in fighting the sea monster.[14]
In classical art
The myth of Andromeda was represented in the art of ancient Greece and of Rome in media including red-figure pottery such as pelike jars,[15] frescoes,[16] and mosaics.[17] Depictions range from straightforward representations of scenes from the myth, such as of Andromeda being tied up for sacrifice, to more ambiguous portrayals with different events depicted in the same painting, as at the Roman villa in Boscotrecase, where Perseus is shown twice, space standing in for time.[16] Favoured scenes changed with time: until the 4th century BC, Perseus was shown decapitating Medusa, while after that, and in Roman portrayals, he was shown rescuing Andromeda.[18]
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Perseus defends Andromeda from the monster Cetus by pelting it with stones. Corinthian amphora, 575–550 BC
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Andromeda being tied for sacrifice.Apulian red-figure vase, c. 430–420 BC
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Roman wall painting of Perseus and Andromeda from Boscotrecase, late 1st century BC
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Detail of Andromeda mosaic from 'House of Poseidon' in Zeugma, Turkey, 2nd–3rd century AD
Variants
There are several variants of the legend. In Hyginus's account, Perseus does not ask for Andromeda's hand in marriage before saving her, and when he afterwards intends to keep her for his wife, both her father Cepheus and her uncle Phineas plot against him, and Perseus resorts to using Medusa's head to turn them to stone.[19] In contrast, Ovid states that Perseus kills Cetus with his magical sword, even though he also carries Medusa's head, which could easily turn the monster to stone (and Perseus does use Medusa's head for this purpose in other situations). The earliest straightforward account of Perseus using Medusa's head against Cetus, however, is from the later 2nd-century AD satirist Lucian.[20]
The 12th-century
Constellations
Andromeda is represented in the
In literature
In poetry
John Keats's 1819 sonnet On the Sonnet compares the restricted sonnet form to the bound Andromeda as being "Fetter'd, in spite of pained loveliness".[26] William Morris retells the story of Perseus and Andromeda in his epic 1868 poem The Earthly Paradise, in the section April: The Doom of King Acrisius.[27] Gerard Manley Hopkins's sonnet Andromeda[28] (1879) has invited many interpretations.[29][30] Charles Kingsley's hexameter poem retelling the myth, Andromeda (1858), was set to music by Cyril Rootham in his Andromeda (1905).[31]
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Title page of George Chapman's Andromeda Liberata, 1614, allegorically celebrating the tumultuous marriage of Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset and Frances Howard[25]
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Ruggiero Rescuing Angelica byepic poem Orlando Furioso, in a scene often confused with the myth of Andromeda.[2]
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Doré's 1869 painting of Andromeda
In novels
In the 1851 novel
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Herman Melville's 1851 novel Moby-Dick mentions Guido Reni's 17th century painting of Andromeda.[33]
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William Hogarth's Perseus and Andromeda, too, is mentioned in Moby-Dick.[33] 1808 engraving, after Hogarth, by T. Cook.
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The Sea, The Sea.[37]
In the performing arts
In theatre
The theme, well suited to the stage,[5] was introduced to theatre by Sophocles in his lost tragedy Andromeda (5th century BC), which survives only in fragments. Euripides took up the theme in his play of the same name (412 BC), also now lost, but parodied by Aristophanes in his comedy Thesmophoriazusae (411 BC) and influential in the ancient world. In the parody, Mnesilochus is shaved and dressed as a woman to gain entrance to the women's secret rites, held in honour of the fertility goddess Demeter. Euripides swoops mock-heroically across the stage as Perseus on a theatrical crane, trying and failing to rescue Mnesilochus, who responds by acting out the role of Andromeda.[38]
The legend of Perseus and Andromeda became popular among playwrights in the 17th century, including Lope de Vega's 1621 El Perseo,[39] and Pierre Corneille's famous[5] 1650 verse play Andromède, with dramatic stage machinery effects, including Perseus astride Pegasus as he battles the sea monster. The play, a pièce à machines, presented to King Louis XIV of France and performed by the Comédiens du Roi, the royal troupe, had enormous and lasting success, continuing in production until 1660, to Corneille's surprise.[5][40] The production was a radical departure from the tradition of French theatre, based in part on the Italian tradition of operas about Andromeda; it was semi-operatic, with many songs, set to music by D'Assouci, alongside the stage scenery by the Italian painter Giacomo Torelli. Corneille chose to present Andromeda fully-clothed, supposing that her nakedness had been merely a painterly tradition; Knutson comments that in so doing, "he unintentionally broke the last link with the early erotic myth."[5]
Pedro Calderón de la Barca's 1653 Las Fortunas de Perseo y Andrómeda was also inspired by Corneille,[5] and like El Perseo was heavily embellished with the playwrights' inventions and traditional additions.[39]
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Set design for Pierre Corneille's 1650 Andromède, noted for its stage effects: Act 2, where Aeolus and eight winds lift Andromeda into the clouds, with thunder and lightning[40]
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Andromède, Act 3, where Perseus, riding Pegasus, rescues a fully-clothed Andromeda from the sea monster[40]
The Andromeda theme was explored later in works such as Muriel Stuart's closet drama Andromeda Unfettered (1922), featuring: Andromeda, "the spirit of woman"; Perseus, "the new spirit of man"; a chorus of "women who desire the old thrall"; and a chorus of "women who crave the new freedom".[41]
In music and opera
The Andromeda theme has been popular in classical music since the 17th century. It became a theme for opera from the 16th century, with an Andromeda in Italy in 1587.[5] This was followed by Claudio Monteverdi's Andromeda (1618–1620).[42] Benedetto Ferrari's Andromeda, with music by Francesco Manelli, was the first opera performed in a public theatre, Venice's Teatro San Cassiano, in 1637.[43] This set the pattern for Italian opera for several centuries.[44][45]
Other classical works have taken a variety of forms including in F (Perseus' Rescue of Andromeda) and Symphony in D (The Petrification of Phineus and his Friends), Nos. 4 and 5 of his Symphonies after Ovid's Metamorphoses (c. 1781).
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The world's first publicly-performed opera, Benedetto Ferrari's Andromeda, 1637
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Reconstruction of the inauguration of Venice's Teatro San Cassiano in 1637 with Andromeda
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Title page of Jean-Baptiste Lully's 1682 Persée in 5 acts
In the 19th century, Augusta Holmès composed the symphonic poem Andromède (1883). In 2019, Caroline Mallonée wrote her Portraits of Andromeda for cello and string orchestra.[48]
In popular music, the theme is employed in tracks on Weyes Blood's 2019 album Titanic Rising and on Ensiferum's 2020 album Thalassic.[49]
In film
The 1981 film Clash of the Titans is loosely based on the story of Perseus, Andromeda, and Cassiopeia. In the film the monster is a kraken, a giant squid-like sea monster in Norse mythology, rather than the whale-like Cetos of Greek mythology. Perseus defeats the sea monster by showing it Medusa's face to turn it into stone, rather than by using his magical sword, and rides Pegasus.[52] The 2010 remake with the same title, adapts the original story. Andromeda is set to be sacrificed to the kraken but is saved by Perseus. The historian and filmmaker Henry Louis Gates Jr. criticizes both the original film and its remake for using white actresses to portray the Ethiopian princess Andromeda. The 1981 film uses the blonde Judi Bowker; the 2010 remake uses the brunette Alexa Davalos. Gates, noting that Andromeda was a black Aethiopian, writes that "their Andromedas appear to satisfy Hollywood's idea for a perfect match for Perseus".[50] A third film, the 2012 Wrath of the Titans, repeated the white Andromeda trope by casting the English actress Rosamund Pike in the role. Kimathi Donkor comments that none of the three films provide any "hint of the disruptive racial dilemma posed by the classical setting of Ethiopia",[51] preferring instead to continue the Western art tradition of "a hegemonic white visual space denying Ovid's mythography of black beauty."[51]
In art
Merged traditions
The legend of
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Classical Roman fresco fromwinged sandals, flying in to free Andromeda[1]
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Paolo Uccello's 1470 Saint George and the Dragon, illustrating a separate legend that became confused with the story of Perseus and Andromeda, introducing a horse for the hero[1]
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Piero di Cosimo, Perseus Freeing Andromeda, c. 1510. The hero is depicted with winged sandals, while Andromeda is clothed, unlike in many later paintings.
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Giuseppe Cesari, Perseus and Andromeda, 1602. The hero is shown riding Pegasus, the flying horse, in a departure from classical myth.[1]
Idealized beauty to realism
Andromeda, and her role in the popular myth of Perseus, has been the subject of numerous ancient and modern works of art, where she is represented as a bound and helpless, typically beautiful, young woman placed in terrible danger, who must be saved through the unswerving courage of a hero who loves her. She is often shown, as by
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Peter Paul Rubens, Perseus and Andromeda, c. 1622, showing the moment that Perseus and Pegasus free Andromeda[53]
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Edward Poynter, Andromeda, 1869, depicted as an idealized beauty
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Frederic, Lord Leighton, Perseus and Andromeda, 1891, showing the punishment as unfair[55]
Varied materials and approaches
Apart from oil on canvas, artists have used a variety of materials to depict the myth of Andromeda, including the sculptor Domenico Guidi's marble, and François Boucher's etching. In modern art of the 20th century, artists moved to depict the myth in new ways. Félix Vallotton's 1910 Perseus Killing the Dragon is one of several paintings, such as his 1908 The Rape of Europa, in which the artist depicts human bodies using a harsh light which makes them appear brutal.[56] Alexander Liberman's 1962 Andromeda is a black circle on a white field, transected by purple and dark green crescent arcs.[57]
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Domenico Guidi, marble statue Andromeda and the Sea Monster, 1694
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François Boucher, etching print Andromeda, 1732
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Félix Vallotton, Perseus Killing the Dragon, 1910, in a deliberately harsh light. Oil on canvas[56]
Analysis
Ethnicity
Andromeda was the daughter of the king and queen of Aethiopia, which
By the 1st century BC a rival location for Andromeda's story had become established: an outcrop of rocks near the ancient port city of Joppa, as reported by Pomponius Mela,[62] the traveller Pausanias,[63] the geographer Strabo,[64] and the historian Josephus.[65] A case has been made that this new version of the myth was exploited to enhance the fame and serve the local tourist trade of Joppa, which also became connected with the biblical story of Jonah and yet another huge sea creature.[66][67] This was at odds with Andromeda's African origins, adding to the confusion already surrounding her ethnicity, as reflected in 5th-century BC Greek vase images showing Andromeda attended by dark-skinned African servants and wearing clothing that would have looked foreign to Greeks, yet with light skin.[68] In the Greek Anthology, Philodemus (1st century BC) wrote about the "Indian Andromeda".[69]
The art historian Elizabeth McGrath discusses the tradition, as promoted by the influential Roman poet Ovid, that Andromeda was a dark-skinned woman of either Ethiopian or Indian origin.[70] In his Heroides, Ovid has Sappho explain to Phaon: "If I'm not pale, Andromeda pleased Perseus, dark with the colour of her father Cepheus's land. And often white pigeons mate with other hues, and the dark turtledove's loved by emerald birds";[71] the Latin word fuscae Ovid uses here for 'dark Andromeda' refers to the colour black or brown. Elsewhere he says that Perseus brought Andromeda from "darkest" India[72] and declares "Nor was Andromeda's colour any problem to her wing-footed aerial lover"[73] adding that "White suits dark girls; you looked so attractive in white, Andromeda".[74] Ovid's account of Andromeda's story[75] follows Euripides' play Andromeda in having Perseus initially mistake the chained Andromeda for a statue of marble, which has been taken to mean she was light-skinned; but since statues in Ovid's time were commonly painted to look like living people, her skin could have been of any colour.[76] The ambiguity is reflected in a description by the 2nd-century AD sophist Philostratus of a painting depicting Perseus and Andromeda. He emphasizes the painting's Ethiopian setting, and notes that Andromeda "is charming in that she is fair of skin though in Ethiopia," in clear contrast to the other "charming Ethiopians with their strange coloring and their grim smiles" who have assembled to cheer Perseus in this picture.[77] Heliodorus of Emesa follows Philostratus in describing Andromeda as light-skinned in contrast to the clearly dark-skinned Aethiopians; in his Aethiopica, Queen Persinna of Aethiopia gives birth to an inexplicably white girl, Chariclea. Heliodorus states that this happened because the queen had gazed at a picture of Andromeda in the palace. The scholar of literature John Michael Archer calls this an example of "how African space is defined by European reference points".[78]
Artworks in the modern era continue to portray Andromeda as fair-skinned, regardless of her stated origins; only a small minority of artists, such as an engraving after
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Engraving after Abraham van Diepenbeeck, The Rescue of Andromeda (1632–1635), from M. de Marolles, Tableaux du Temple des Muses (Paris, 1655), is exceptional in showing Andromeda as dark-skinned.[3]
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Eugène Delacroix, Perseus and Andromeda, c. 1853, follows the mainstream in depicting Andromeda as light-skinned.
Bondage and rescue
The imagery of Perseus and Andromeda was depicted by many artists of the Victorian era. Adrienne Munich states that most of these choose the moment after the hero Perseus has killed Medusa and is preparing to "slay the dragon and unbind the maiden".[4] In her view, this transitional moment just precedes "the hero's final test of manhood before entering adult sexuality".[4] Andromeda, on the other hand, "has no story, but she has a role and a lineage", being a princess, and having "attributes: chains, nakedness, flowing hair, beauty, virginity. Without a voice in her fate, she neither defies the gods nor chooses her mate."[4] Munich comments that given that most of the artists were men, "it can be thought of as a male myth", providing convenient gender roles. She cites Catherine MacKinnon's description of the gender differences as "the erotization of dominance and submission": the male gets the power and the female is submissive. Further, the rescue myth provides a "veneer of charity" over the themes of aggression and possession.[4]
Munich likens the effect to
As for the bondage, Munich notes that the Victorian critic John Ruskin attacked male exploitation of what she calls "suffering nudes as subjects for titillating pictures."[4] "Andromeda" is, she writes, the name of a type of "debased" imagery. She gives as example Gustave Doré's drawing of the voluptuously chained-up Angelica for Orlando Furioso, where "torment combines with an artistic pose, giving a new meaning to the concept of the 'pin-up'."[4] She notes Ruskin's assertion that the image linked nude prostitutes to the naked Christ, both perverting the meaning of Andromeda's suffering and "blasphem[ing] Christ's sacrifice".[4]
Further, Munich writes, Andromeda's name means 'Ruler of Men', hinting at her power; and indeed, she can be seen as "the good sister" of the monstrous female, the Medusa who turns men to stone. In psychological terms, she comments, "by slaying the Medusa and freeing Andromeda, the hero tames the chaotic female, the very sign of nature, simultaneously choosing and constructing the socially defined and acceptable female behavior."[4]
The scholar of literature Harold Knutson describes the story as having a "disturbing sensuality", which together with the evident injustice of Andromeda's "undeserved sacrifice, create a curiously ambiguous effect".
Knutson writes that a similar pattern is seen in several other myths, including Heracles' rescue of Hesione; Jason's rescue of Medea from the hundred-eyed dragon; Cadmus's rescue of Harmonia from a dragon; and in an early version of another tale, Theseus's rescue of Ariadne from the Minotaur. He comments that all of this points to "the richness of the [story's] archetypal model", citing Hudo Hetzner's analysis of the many stories that involve a hero rescuing a maiden from a monster. The beast may be a sea-monster, or it may be a dragon that lives in a cave and terrifies a whole country, or the monstrous Count Dracula who lives in a castle.[5]
See also
- Hesione – saved by Heracles from a sea monster
- Iphigenia – sacrificed to the goddess Artemis (or rescued, depending on the version)
References
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Further reading
- Edwin Hartland, The Legend of Perseus: A Study of Tradition in Story, Custom and Belief, 3 vols. (1894–1896) ISBN 1481035738 (available online at: https://archive.org/details/legendofperseuss01hart/page/n6/mode/2up)
- Daniel Ogden, Perseus (ISBN 0415427258