Bhoja
Bhoja | |||||
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Parama-bhattaraka Maharajadhiraja Parameshvara | |||||
Raja of Malwa | |||||
Reign | c. 1010–1055 CE | ||||
Predecessor | Sindhuraja | ||||
Successor | Jayasimha I | ||||
Spouse |
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Issue | Probably Jayasimha I | ||||
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Dynasty | Paramara | ||||
Father | Sindhuraja | ||||
Mother | Savitri (according to Bhoja-Prabandha) | ||||
Religion | Hinduism | ||||
Royal sign-manual |
Bhoja | |
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Battles/wars | Military career of Bhoja |
Bhoja (reigned c. 1010–1055 CE) was an
Because of his patronage to scholars, Bhoja became one of the most celebrated kings in the Indian history. After his death, he came to be featured in several legends as a righteous scholar-king. The body of legends clustered around him is comparable to that of the Emperor Vikramaditya.
Bhoja is best known as a patron of arts, literature, and sciences. The establishment of the
Early life
Bhoja's father and predecessor was Sindhuraja. According to Bhoja-Prabandha, his mother's name was Savitri.[1] Bhoja's reputation as a scholar-king suggests that he was well-educated as a child. The Bhoja-Prabandha states that he was educated by his guardians as well as other learned scholars.[2]
According to Bhoja-Prabandha, early in his life, Bhoja suffered from intense headaches. Two
Legend of persecution by Munja
According to Tilaka-Manjari, composed by Bhoja's contemporary Dhanapala, Bhoja's feet had auspicious birthmarks indicating that he was fit to be a king.[5] His uncle Munja (and his father's predecessor) loved him greatly, and appointed him as the king.[6]
However, several later legendary accounts state that Munja was initially jealous of Bhoja, and tried to prevent him from becoming a king. For example, the 14th century Prabandha-Chintamani states that during the reign of Munja, an astrologer prophesied Bhoja's long reign. Munja, who wanted his own son to become the king, ordered Bhoja's killing.[7] Bhoja was appointed as the king by the royal ministers after Munja's death.[5] According to a Gujarati legend documented in Rasmala, Munja ordered Bhoja's murder, but later appointed him as the crown prince.[6]
Bhoja-Prabandha states that Munja ordered one Vatsaraja to kill Bhoja at the Mahamaya temple in Bhuvaneshvari forest. On hearing Bhoja's cultured manner of talking, Vatsaraja and his men abandoned the murder plan. They faked Bhoja's death, and presented to Munja a fake head and a verse from Bhoja. The verse described how great kings like
These stories of Bhoja's persecution by Munja are essentially mythical. This legend is not found in the works composed by the contemporaries of Munja, Sindhuraja and Bhoja. For example, the Nava-sahasanka-charita makes no mention of this story. The legend appears to be the poetic imagination of later composers.[10] Ain-i-Akbari also contains a variation of this account, but completely distorts the legend, naming Munja as the one who was persecuted by Bhoja. This account is also completely unreliable from a historical point of view.[11]
Anointment
Some literary works suggest that Bhoja succeeded his uncle Munja as the Paramara king. These works include Tilaka-Manjari, Prabandha-Chintamani, and Rasmala. However, several other works as well as epigraphic evidence indicate that Bhoja succeeded his father Sindhuraja. Padmagupta, the court poet of Sindhuraja and Bhoja, also supports this fact. According to Bhoja-Prabandha, Munja left the Paramara administration in hands of Sindhuraja before departing on a military expedition. Munja unexpectedly died in this campaign, and as a result, Sindhuraja succeeded him as the king.[12] Sindhuraja's court poet Padmagupta, in his Nava-Sahasanka-Charita, states that Munja "placed the world in Sindhuraja's hands" before leaving for Ambika's town. This indicates that he left the administration in Sindhuraja's hands before leaving for his fatal expedition against Tailapa II.[13] Udaipur Prashasti inscription seems to confirm this.[5]
Period of reign
The Modasa copper plates (1010–11 CE) are the earliest historical record of Bhoja's reign.[14] The Chintamani-Sarnika (1055 CE) was composed by Bhoja's court poet Dasabala.[14] An inscription of Bhoja's successor Jayasimha I is also dated 1055 CE. Thus, 1055 CE can be taken as the last year of Bhoja's reign.[15] Based on these evidences, scholars such as Pratipal Bhatia assign Bhoja's reign to 1010–1055 CE.[16]
However, some scholars assign the beginning of Bhoja's reign variously between 1000 CE and 1010 CE, based on their interpretations of inscriptions and legendary texts.
Names and titles
In the Paramara inscriptions, Bhoja is mentioned as Bhoja-
Military career
While Bhoja became famous as a benevolent king and a patron of arts and culture, he was also renowned as a warrior.
Several legends mention conflicts between the ruler of Malwa and the Chaulukyas, during the reign of the Chaulukya kings Vallabha-raja and Durlabha-raja. Vallabha is said to have died of smallpox during an expedition against the Paramaras. This incident may have happened during the early part of Bhoja's reign, or during the reign of his father Sindhuraja.[25][26] Vallabha's successor Durlabha is said to have repulsed an attack by a confederacy that included the ruler of Malwa, but modern historians doubt the authenticity of this legend.[27][28]
Bhoja's first military aggression appears to be his invasion of the
Sometime before 1019 CE, Bhoja formed an alliance against the Chalukyas of Kalyani with
The Udaipur Prashasti states that Bhoja defeated a ruler named Indraratha. Modern historians identify this king with Indranatha, the
The
Bhoja's attempt to expand his kingdom eastwards was foiled by the
According to the Udaipur Prashasti inscription, Bhoja defeated the
The 1046 CE Tilakawada copper plate inscription states that Bhoja's general Suraditya stabilized his royal fortune by slaughtering one Sahavahana in a battle.[52] Some earlier historians identified Sahavahana as a king of Chamba, but this identification is doubtful, considering the distance between Chamba and Malwa, and the fact that the ruler of Chamba was not powerful enough to destabilize Bhoja's kingdom.[53] Sahavahana might been a general of one of Bhoja's rivals, possibly the Kalachuri king Karna.[54]
Bhoja defeated and killed Viryarama, the Shakambhari Chahamana ruler. Encouraged by this success, he also waged a war against the Chahamanas of Naddula. But in this second campaign, his army was forced to retreat, and his general Sadha was killed.[55]
During the last years of Bhoja's reign, sometime after 1042 CE, Jayasimha's son and successor
Although the Bhoja and Kalachuri king Gangeya were part of an alliance against the Chalukyas, Bhoja defeated Gangeya. It is not certain when they turned into enemies. According to one theory, Bhoja defeated Gangeya before his Chalukya campaign, in which Gangeya must have fought as a Paramara vassal. A contradictory theory is that the two turned enemies after their Chalukya campaign, sometime between 1028 CE and 1042 CE.[59][60] The Udaipur Prashasti also claims that Bhoja defeated one Togglala,[61] who might have been Gangeya's predecessor Kokalla II.[62]
Death
During the last year of Bhoja's reign, or shortly after his death, the Chaulukya king
Merutunga also states that Karna once challenged Bhoja to either a war or a palace-building contest. Bhoja, who was an old man by this time, chose the second option. Bhoja lost this contest, but refused to accept Karna's suzerainty. As a result, Karna, in alliance with Bhima, invaded Malwa. According to Merutunga, Bhoja died of a disease at the same time the allied army attacked his kingdom.[67][68] Several literary works written under Chaulukya patronage suggest that Bhima subjugated Bhoja while Bhoja was still alive. However, such claims are not corroborated by historical evidence.[69][70]
Cultural contributions
Bhoja is best remembered for his intellect and patronage to cultural activities. Noted poets and writers of his time sought his sponsorship. The Kashmiri writer Bilhana famously rued that Bhoja died before him, because of which he failed to seek the king's patronage. Several later kings also emulated Bhoja. For example, Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire styled himself as Abhinava-Bhoja ("the new Bhoja") and Sakala-Kala-Bhoja ("Bhoja of all the arts").[71]
Bhoja was himself a polymath. Under his rule, Mālwa and its capital
Bhoja is said to have founded the city of Bhojpur, a belief supported by historical evidence. Besides the Bhojeshwar Temple there, the construction of three now-breached dams in that area is attributed to him.[72] The temple originally stood on the banks of a reservoir 18.5 long and 7.5 miles wide.[73] This reservoir was formed through construction of 3 earth-and-stone dams during Bhoja's reign. The first dam, built on Betwa River, trapped the river waters in a depression surrounded by hills. A second dam was constructed in a gap between the hills, near present-day Mendua village. A third dam, located in present-day Bhopal, diverted more water from the smaller Kaliasot river into the Betwa dam reservoir. This man-made reservoir existed until 15th century, when Hoshang Shah emptied the lake by breaching two of the dams.[72]
Bhoja established the
Literary works
Bhoja was renowned as a scholar-king, and several books are attributed to him. Because these books cover an enormous range of topics, it is not certain if he actually wrote all these books or if he only commissioned these works, acting as a patron of their actual writers. But it is known that he was an expert on poetry, and the treatise Shringara-Prakasha was definitely authored by him.[78]
According to Ajada, who wrote a commentary titled the Padaka-prakasha on the
- Bhujabala-bhima (Bhujabalabhīma), a work on astrology. Also known as the Bhujabala Nibandhah, edited by Bhagwatilal Rajpurohit (in Sanskrit). Gyan Bharati Publications: 2022. ISBN 9789385538513.
- Champu-Ramayana or Bhoja-Champu (Campūrāmāyaṇa), a re-telling of the Ramayana in mixture of prose and poetry, which characterises the champu genre. The first five kandas (chapters) are attributed to Bhoja. The sixth and seventh chapters were completed by Lakshmana and Venkatadhvarin respectively. Archive.org copy: [1].
- Charucharya (Cārucārya), a treatise on personal hygiene
- Govinda-vilasa, poem
- Nama-Malika, a compiled treatise on lexicography. Published by the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute (1955). Sanskrit edition by ED Kulkarni and VD Gokhale. Archive.org copy: [2].
- Raja-Martaṅda (Rājamārtanḍa) or Patanjali-Yogasutra-Bhashya, a major commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali; includes an explanation of various forms of meditations
- Raja-Mriganka-Karana (Rājamrigankakaraṅa), a treatise on chemistry, especially dealing with the extraction of metals from ores, and production of various drugs. Published along with the Rājamārtanḍa by the Chowkhambha Sanskrit Series, Varanasi (2011). Sanskrit edition with Hindi translation by Dr. Shri Krishna 'Jugnu', Prof. Bhanwar Sharma. ISBN 9788170803522.
- forts, temples, idols of deities and mechanical devices including a so-called flying machine or glider.
- Sarasvati-Kanthabharana (Sarasvatīkaṇṭhabharaṇa), a treatise on Sanskrit grammar for poetic and rhetorical compositions. Most of it is a compilation of works by other writers. Some of the poetic examples provided by him in this work are still appreciated as the highest cream of Sanskrit poetry. Archive.org copy: [3].
- Shalihotra (Śālihotra), a book on horses, their diseases and the remedies. Published by the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute (1953). Sanskrit edition by ED Kulkarni. Archive.org copy: [4].
- Shringara-Prakasha (Śṛṅgāraprakāśa), treatise on poetics and dramaturgy
- Shringara-manjari-katha (Śṛṅgāramanjarīkathā), a poem composed in akhyayika form
- Tattva-Prakasha (Tattvaprākaśa), a treatise on .
- Vidvajjana-Vallabha, treatise on astronomy. Sanskrit edition by David Pingree published in the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Oriental Series No. 9 (1970).
- Vyavahara-Manjari (Vyavahāramanjarī), a work on dharmaśāstra or Hindu law
- ISBN 8177021052.
The Prakrit language poems Kodanda-Kavya and Kurma-Sataka are also attributed to Bhoja.[80] The Kodanda-Kavya (Kodaṅḍakāvya) was found inscribed on stone slab fragments at Mandu.[81] The Kurma-Sataka (Avanikūrmaśataka), which praises the Kurma (tortoise) incarnation of Vishnu, was found inscribed at the Bhoj Shala in Dhar.[82]
Sangitaraja, attributed to Kalasena or Kumbha, names Bhoja as an authority on music, which suggests that Bhoja also compiled or wrote a work on music.[80]
Religion
Historical evidence suggests that Bhoja was a devotee of
The Jain legends state that Bhoja converted to
These accounts of Bhoja's conversion to Jainism are irreconcilable with historical evidence.
Personal life
Bhoja married multiple women as part of matrimonial alliances with other ruling dynasties. His chief queen was Liladevi or Lilavati. His other queens included Padmavati (princess of Kuntala), Chandramukhi (princess of Anga) and Kamala.[91]
Inscriptional evidence suggests that he was succeeded by Jayasimha, who was probably his son.[92] Jayasimha's Mandhata grant of 1055 CE mentions his predecessors as Bhoja, Sindhuraja and Vakpati.[93] However, this inscription does not specify the relationship between Bhoja and Jayasimha, and it is the only epigraph that mentions a Paramara king named Jayasimha. The Udaipur Prashasti and Nagpur Prashasti inscriptions of the later Paramara kings give a detailed genealogy of the Paramara kings, but do not mention Jayasimha. These two inscriptions name Udayaditya as the next ruler after Bhoja. Udayaditya is now known to be Bhoja's brother.[94]
Legends
In terms of the number of legends centered around him, Bhoja is comparable to the Vikramaditya.[95] Sheldon Pollock describes Bhoja as "the most celebrated poet-king and philosopher-king of his time, and perhaps of any Indian time".[96] Bhoja came to be featured in several legends as a righteous scholar-king, who was the ultimate judge of literary qualities and generously rewarded good poets and writers. Most of these legends were written three to five centuries after his death.[97]
Apart from epigraphic records, much of the information about Bhoja comes from these legendary accounts, including Merutunga's Prabandha-Chintamani (14th century), Rajavallabha's Bhoja-Charitra (15th century), and Ballala's Bhoja-Prabandha (17th century). However, many of the popular legends about Bhoja do not have any historical basis.[98] For example, the Bhoja-Prabandha anachronistically describes the ancient poet Kalidasa as a contemporary of Bhoja.[99]
In order to enhance their imperial claims, the Paramaras promoted several legends associating Bhoja with the ancient legendary kings. For example, in
In popular culture
He has been depicted numerous times in Indian cinema. Some films based on him include: Raja Bhoj (1922), Raja Bhoj (1926) by D. J. Jhaveri, King Bhoj (1930) by A. Narayanan and Bhoja Kalidasa (1940) by Hanumappa Vishwanath Babu.[103]
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