Criminalization of homosexuality

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"Love is not a crime" signs at Paris Pride 2019

Some or all sexual acts

HIV epidemic due to the criminalization of men who have sex with men
, discouraging them from seeking preventative care or treatment for HIV infection.

The criminalization of homosexuality is often justified by the scientifically discredited idea that homosexuality

Islam). Arguments against the criminalization of homosexuality began to be expressed during the Enlightenment. Initial objections included the practical difficulty of enforcement, excessive state intrusion into private life, and the belief that criminalization was not an effective way of reducing the incidence of homosexuality. Later objections included the argument that homosexuality should be considered a disease rather than a crime, that criminalization violates the human rights
of homosexuals, and that homosexuality is not morally wrong.

In many countries, criminalization of homosexuality is based on legal codes inherited from the

UN member states and de facto in two others; at least seven of these have a death penalty for homosexuality
.

History

Ancient through early modern world

The burning of the knight Richard Puller von Hohenburg with his servant before the walls of Zürich, for sodomy, 1482

The

liwat), but others did not mention the offense.[4] In 15th-century central Mexico, homosexual acts between men could be punished by disembowelment and smothering in hot ashes.[5]

During the

buggery (anal sex).[11][12]

Impact of colonialism and imperialism

Participant carrying a poster against Section 377 during Bhubaneswar Pride Parade, India

Many present-day jurisdictions criminalize homosexuality based on colonial criminal codes they adopted under British rule.

sharia law.[24] Both China and Japan, which had not historically prosecuted homosexuality,[6] criminalized it based on Western models in the nineteenth century.[25]

During the

decriminalized homosexuality in 1858, when it adopted a French-inspired criminal code,[36] but Elif Ceylan Özsoy argues that homosexuality had already been decriminalized.[37] However, some Ottoman men were executed for sodomy including two boys in Damascus in 1807.[38]

The unification of Germany reversed some of the gains of the Napoleonic conquests as the unified country adopted the Prussian penal code in 1871, re-criminalizing homosexuality in some areas.[31] In Germany, the prohibition of homosexuality was not frequently enforced until 1933.[39] In Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945, an estimated 57,000 men were convicted of violating Paragraph 175.[40] Never before or since have so many homosexuals been convicted in such a short period of time.[41] Thousands of men were imprisoned and killed in Nazi concentration camps.[42] West Germany convicted about the same number of men under the same law until 1969, when homosexuality was partially decriminalized.[43]

In the Russian Empire, homosexuality was criminalized in 1835 and decriminalized in 1917 as a result of the Russian Revolution.[44][45] The criminalization was reinstated in 1934, with a harsher penalty than before, for unknown reasons.[46]

Post-World War II decriminalization trend

Proportion of the world population living in a country where homosexual acts are not criminalized, 1760–2020
Number of jurisdictions criminalizing homosexuality, 1990–2024

In the decades after World War II, anti-homosexuality laws saw increased enforcement in Western Europe and the United States.[47][48][49] During the 1950s and 1960s, there was a tendency to legalize homosexuality with a higher age of consent than for heterosexual relationships; this model was recommended by various international organizations to prevent young men from becoming homosexual.[50] Convergence occurred both through the partial decriminalization of homosexuality, as in the United Kingdom (1967), Canada (1969), and West Germany (1969), or through the partial criminalization of homosexuality, such as in Belgium, where the first law against same-sex activity came into effect in 1965.[50][51]

There was a wave of decriminalization in the late twentieth century; ninety percent of changes to these laws between 1945 and 2005 involved liberalization or abolition.

unconstitutional by a court.[52] Decriminalization began in Europe and the Americas and spread globally in the 1980s.[53] The pace of decriminalization reached a peak in the 1990s. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, many former Soviet republics decriminalized homosexuality,[54] but others in Central Asia retained these laws.[55] China decriminalized homosexuality in 1997.[56] Following a protracted legal battle, the Supreme Court of India ruled that the criminalization of homosexuality violated the Constitution of India in the 2018 Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India judgement.[57][58]

One explanation for these legal changes is increased regard for

KOF Index of Globalization) was negatively correlated with the criminalization of homosexuality.[62]

Resistance to decriminalization

Further information: LGBT rights in Africa

Africa is the only continent where decriminalization of homosexuality has not been widespread since the mid-twentieth century.

Global North.[64][65][66] Such claims ignore the fact that many indigenous African cultures tolerated homosexuality, and historically the criminalization of homosexuality derives from British colonialism.[67][12][65] In the Middle East, homosexuality has been seen as a tool of Western domination for the same reason.[68]

The application of international pressure to decriminalize homosexuality has had mixed results in Africa. While it led to liberalization in some countries, it also prompted public opinion to be skeptical of these demands and encouraging countries to pass even more restrictive laws in resistance to what is seen as

Evangelical Christianity and especially Pentecostalism has increased the politicization of homosexuality as these churches have been engaged in anti-homosexual mobilizations as a form of nation building.[76][77] While such calls often come from domestic religious institutions, the influence of U.S. conservative Christian groups, who have provided networking, training and funding support, has been instrumental in advancing anti-homosexual discourse in Africa.[78][79]

Current status

Further information: LGBT rights by country or territory

As of 2020, 21 percent of the world population lives in countries where homosexuality is criminalized.[80] In its 2023 Database, the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA) found that homosexuality is criminalized in 62 of 193 UN member states, while two UN member states, Iraq and Egypt, criminalize it de facto but not in legislation. In at least seven UN member states—Brunei, Iran, Mauritania, Nigeria (only northern Nigeria), Saudi Arabia, Uganda, and Yemen—it is punishable by death.[81][82] Two-thirds of countries that criminalize sexual activity between men also criminalize it between women.[80] In 2007, five countries conducted executions as a penalty for homosexual acts.[83] In 2020, the ILGA named Iran and Saudi Arabia as the only countries in which executions for same-sex activity have reportedly taken place.[84] In other countries, such as Yemen, Somalia, Iraq, and Libya, extrajudicial executions are carried out by militias such as Al-Shabaab, the Islamic State, or Al-Qaeda.[85] In 2021, Téa Braun of the Human Dignity Trust estimated that more than 71 million LGBT people live in countries where homosexuality is criminalized.[86]

  Criminalized
  Decriminalized 1791–1850
  Decriminalized 1850–1945
  Decriminalized 1946–1989
  Decriminalized 1990–present
  Unknown date of legalization
  Always legal

Scope of laws

Laws against homosexuality make some or all sex acts between people of the same sex a crime.

Labouchère Amendment in 1885[92] and the 1935 revision of Germany's Paragraph 175 simply criminalized any sexual act between two men.[93] Both laws made it much easier to convict men for homosexuality, leading to an increase in convictions.[94][92]

Penalties vary widely, from fines or short terms of imprisonment to the death penalty.

statutory law,[99] but in some countries such as Saudi Arabia they are based on the direct application of Islamic criminal jurisprudence.[100]

Even in countries where there are no specific laws against homosexuality, homosexuals may be disproportionately criminalized under other laws, such as those targeting indecency, debauchery, prostitution, pornography,[101] homelessness,[102] or HIV exposure.[103] In some countries such as (historically) China and (currently) Egypt, such laws serve as de facto criminalization of homosexuality.[101] One analysis of the United States found that, instead of being directly arrested under sodomy laws, "most arrests of homosexuals came from solicitation, disorderly conduct, and loitering laws, which were based on the assumption that homosexuals (unlike heterosexuals), by definition, were people who engaged in illicit activity".[47] In 2014, Nigeria passed the Same Sex Marriage (Prohibition) Act 2013, criminalizing people who have a same-sex marriage ceremony with five years' imprisonment. Although homosexuality was already illegal, the law led to increasing persecution of Nigerian homosexuals.[104]

Enforcement

Laws criminalizing homosexuality are inherently difficult to enforce, because they concern acts done by consenting individuals in private.[105][106] Enforcement varies from active persecution to non-enforcement;[107][95] more often than not, laws are nearly unenforced for private, consensual sex.[47] In some countries, there are no prosecutions for decades or there is a formal moratorium.[108]

In Nazi Germany, the site of the most severe persecution of homosexual men in history, only about 10 percent of the homosexual male population was ever convicted and imprisoned.[109] In Iran, the 2013 penal code forbids authorities from proactively investigating same-sex acts unless kidnapping or assault are suspected.[110] In some countries such as India (prior to 2018, when the sodomy law was declared unconstitutional)[111] and Guyana, the laws are not commonly enforced but are used to harass LGBT people.[112] Indian police have used the threat of prosecution to extort money or sexual favors.[113] Arrests, even without conviction, can often lead to publicity causing the accused to lose their job.[47] Those prosecuted under such laws tend to be disproportionately from working-class backgrounds, unmarried, and between twenty and forty years old.[114]

States including Nazi Germany and Egypt commonly use

sexual lubricant or stereotypically feminine characteristics are cited as circumstantial evidence that the suspect has committed sodomy.[116] Online dating apps have also been used to identify and target men for prosecution.[117]

Physical examinations purporting to detect evidence of homosexual practices have been employed since at least 1857, when the French physician

transgender women.[120][119] There is no evidence that such tests are effective at detecting whether the victim has taken part in homosexual activity.[121][119] This practice is considered to constitute acts of torture under the United Nations Convention Against Torture.[119]

Effects

The criminalization of homosexuality is often seen as defining all gays and lesbians as criminals or outlaws.

freedom of expression and freedom of association.[133][126]

Reactions of homosexuals to the laws range from

Robert Beachy argues that a confluence of factors including the criminalization of homosexuality meant that a sense of homosexual identity was first developed in Germany around 1900, ultimately catalyzing the first homosexual movement.[135][136] LGBT movements often developed after the repeal of criminal laws, but in some cases they contributed to repeal efforts.[137] LGBT activism against criminalization can take multiple forms, including directly advocating the repeal of the laws, strategic litigation in the judicial system in order to reduce enforceability, seeking external allies from outside the country, and capacity building within the community.[138] A 1986 study found that the decriminalization of homosexuality in South Australia did not lead to an increase in undesirable effects (such as child abuse, public solicitation, or disease transmission) as claimed in parliamentary debates.[139]

The criminalization of homosexuality has been identified as an exacerbating feature of the

HIV epidemic in Africa[140][141] and Central Asia,[142] because it dissuades many people at risk of HIV infection from disclosing their sexual behavior to healthcare providers or seeking preventative care, testing, or treatment. Criminalization both reinforces societal disapproval of homosexuality, which is another factor in decreasing the effectiveness of anti-HIV efforts and is independently associated with less access to HIV services.[140][141]

Support and opposition

Religions

The

temple prostitution or particular sexual acts between multiple men, particularly those that are seen as compromising a man's masculinity. The total prohibition of homosexual behavior is considered to have evolved relatively late in the Jewish tradition.[143] Some Christians cite various Bible passages in order to justify the criminalization of homosexuality.[144] Although the Holy See officially opposes the criminalization of homosexuality, in 2014 Roman Catholic bishops from Malawi, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, Eritrea, Zambia, Uganda, and Ethiopia united to demand criminal punishment of homosexuals, calling homosexuality unnatural and un-African.[145]

According to sharia law,

progressive Muslims have argued for a new interpretation of liwat (which is never defined in the Quran) to mean something other than consensual homosexual acts.[151]

Adherence to Islam is a major predictor of maintaining laws criminalizing homosexuality and the death penalty for it. The majority of studies have found no association for Christianity.

religious courts having jurisdiction beyond family law or bans on interfaith marriage, is strongly correlated with maintaining the criminalization of homosexuality.[155] In Africa, anti-homosexual campaigns promoted by conservative Christians, sometimes with support from U.S. conservative evangelical Christian groups, have seen increased law enforcement efforts and the introduction of harsher penalties against homosexual activity.[156][157][158]

Under

Buddhist religious law, there is no punishment for homosexuality among laypeople. Although harsh penalties are prescribed for penetrative sexual activity by male monks, novitiates suffer less punishment than for heterosexual activity.[6]

Arguments for

A prominent reason cited for criminalizing homosexuality is the claim, made without evidence, that it could be

Philo of Alexandria[164] and Heinrich Himmler believed that if allowed to spread unchecked, homosexuality would lead to depopulation; therefore, they advocated harsh punishments.[165][166] The belief that the West is conspiring to depopulate Africa using homosexuality is also a common argument for retaining the criminalization of homosexuality in Africa.[167]

Supporters of

sexually transmitted infections, in particular HIV/AIDS, as a reason to keep their laws.[173][174]

Another reason cited in favor of criminalizing homosexuality is public opinion.[175][176] The rarity of prosecutions is also cited as a reason not to repeal the laws.[133][177]

Arguments against

Criticism of the criminalization of homosexuality began to be expressed by Enlightenment thinkers such as legal philosopher Cesare Beccaria in his 1764 treatise On Crimes and Punishments.[31][178] Early opponents argued that the laws were impractical to enforce,[105][179][180] ineffective at deterring homosexuality,[181][105] and overly intrusive into private life.[105][179][31] For example, Napoleon believed that "The scandal of legal proceedings would only tend to multiply" homosexual acts.[182] In 1898, socialist politician August Bebel highlighted the disproportionate enforcement of Paragraph 175 against working-class German men as a reason for repeal.[183] One argument leading to the decriminalization of homosexuality in countries such as Canada, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, and Bulgaria was that homosexuality was a pathological disease and therefore inappropriate as an object of criminal sanctions.[184][185][186]

Another argument cited for the decriminalization of homosexuality is that morality is distinct from law, which should concern itself only with the public good. Based on the work of

Lord Devlin, H. L. A. Hart, and others about whether the law was a suitable instrument for the enforcement of morality when the interests of non-consenting parties are not affected.[189][190] Many of these justifications are consistent with a strong moral condemnation of homosexuality[179] and are disputes over how best to handle the perceived social problem of homosexuality, rather than being based on the inalienable rights of LGBT people.[186]

Another line of reasoning argues that homosexuality is not morally wrong.

sexual freedom, arguing that homosexuality and other forms of consensual sex were morally acceptable as they were pleasurable to their participants and forbidding these acts destroyed a great deal of human happiness.[191] In the 1860s and 1870s, German Karl Heinrich Ulrichs was the most prominent critic of the criminalization of homosexuality.[192] His demand for equality before the law and in religion on the basis of an innate, biologically based sexual drive—beginning with the decriminalization of homosexuality and ending with same-sex marriage—are similar to those sought by LGBT rights organizations in the twenty-first century.[193] As a result of social changes, in the twenty-first century, the majority of people in many Western countries view homosexuality as morally acceptable or not a moral issue.[194][195]

Human rights

See also: Right to sexuality

The criminalization of homosexuality is a violation of

Human Rights Committee ruled that the criminalization of homosexuality in Tasmania violated the right to privacy and non-discrimination guaranteed in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, even though the applicant was never arrested or charged with violating the law. While Tasmania argued that the law was necessary to protect traditional morals and prevent the transmission of HIV, the Human Rights Committee found that arguments about morals are not insulated from international human rights norms.[197]

In 2014, the

Commission on Human and People's Rights issued a landmark resolution calling for the decriminalization of homosexuality.[198] In 2020, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights found in Gareth Henry and Simone Carline Edwards v. Jamaica that Jamaica's laws criminalizing same-sex activities violated the applicants' right to privacy, right to humane treatment, freedom of movement, and principle of legality guaranteed by the American Convention on Human Rights. The commission recommended that Jamaica repeal the laws against same-sex activity in order to guarantee the non-repetition of similar human rights abuses in the future.[199] Persecution on the grounds of sexual orientation is a reason to seek asylum in some countries, including Canada, the European Union, and the United Kingdom, although depending on the case the mere existence of criminal sanctions may not be sufficient for an applicant to be granted asylum.[133][200]

Public opinion

See also: Societal attitudes toward homosexuality

According to a 2017 worldwide survey by

ILGA, the criminalization of homosexuality is correlated with more negative opinions on LGBT people and LGBT rights. Overall, 28.5 percent of those surveyed supported the criminalization of homosexuality, while 49 percent disagreed. In states that criminalize homosexuality, 42 percent agree, and 36 percent disagree, compared with non-criminalizing states where 22 percent agree, and 55 percent disagree. Knowing someone who is gay, lesbian, or bisexual is correlated with less support for criminalization.[201] The number of Americans who agree that homosexuality should be a criminal offense has dropped from 56 percent in 1986 to 18 percent in 2021.[202] Public opinion surveys show that while 78 percent of Africans disapprove of homosexuality, only 45 percent support it being criminalized.[203]

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Sources

Books

Journal articles

Reports

External links

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