Grand Duchy of Finland
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Grand Duchy of Finland | |||||||||||||
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1809–1917 | |||||||||||||
Nicholas II | |||||||||||||
Governor-General | |||||||||||||
• 1809 (first) | Georg Sprengtporten | ||||||||||||
• 1917 (last) | Nikolai Nekrasov | ||||||||||||
Vice Chairman | |||||||||||||
• 1822–1826 (first) | Carl Erik Mannerheim | ||||||||||||
• 1917 (last) | Anders Wirenius | ||||||||||||
Legislature | Diet (1809–1906) Parliament (1906–1917) | ||||||||||||
History | |||||||||||||
29 March 1809 | |||||||||||||
17 September 1809 | |||||||||||||
6 December 1917 | |||||||||||||
Currency | Swedish riksdaler (1809–1840) Russian ruble (1840–1860) Finnish markka (1860–1917) | ||||||||||||
ISO 3166 code | FI | ||||||||||||
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Today part of | Finland Russia |
The Grand Duchy of Finland, officially and also translated as the Grand Principality of Finland,
Originating in the 16th century as a titular
Economic, social and political changes in the Grand Duchy of Finland paralleled those in the Russian Empire and the rest of Europe. The economy grew slowly during the first half of the 19th century. The reign of Alexander II (1855–1881) saw significant cultural, social and intellectual progress, and an industrializing economy. Tensions increased after Saint Petersburg adopted Russification policies in 1898; the new circumstances saw the reduction of Finnish autonomy and cultural expression. Unrest in Russia and Finland during the First World War (1914–1918) and the subsequent collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917 resulted in the Finnish Declaration of Independence and the end of the Grand Duchy.[3]
History
An extended
During the
After his return to Finland in 1812, the Finnish-born Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt became counsellor to the Russian emperor. Armfelt was instrumental in securing the grand duchy as an entity with relatively greater autonomy within the Russian realm, and acquiring so-called Old Finland that Russia had annexed from Sweden in the Treaty of Nystad (1721) and the Treaty of Åbo (1743).[5]
Beginning of the Grand Duchy
The formation of the grand duchy stems from the
The Finns complied, bitter over Sweden abandoning the country for their war against Denmark and France, and begrudgingly embraced Russian conquest. The Diet of Finland was now to only meet whenever requested, and was never mentioned in the manifesto published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Further on, Alexander I requested a deputation of the four Finnish estates, as he expressed concern over continued Finnish resistance. The deputation refused to act without the Diet, to which Alexander agreed with, and promised the Diet would shortly be summoned. By 1809, all of Finland had been conquered and the Diet was summoned in March. Finland was then united through Russia via the crown, and Finland was able to keep the majority of its own laws, giving it autonomy.[7][8]
Instead of the newly acquired territory being subjected to direct rule by an imperial governor-general, a novel administrative system was established in Finland, drafted in part by the liberal Mikhail Speransky. The new grand duchy would be governed by a Government Council, later the Senate of Finland, a body made up of Finnish citizens. The governor-general would accordingly have a relatively diminished role. Further, the emperor would deal with matters relating to Finland directly through a dedicated Secretary of State, without the involvement of his Russian cabinet or administration. This laid the foundation for the considerable autonomy enjoyed by Finland for most of the period of Russian rule.
Early years
The earlier years of the grand duchy can be seen as uneventful. In 1812, the area of
Despite promises of a Finnish Diet, the Diet was not called to meet until 1863 and many new laws going through the legislature were laws that would have required the approval of the Diet while under Swedish rule. Alexander went a step further to demand a Finnish House of Nobles, which organised in 1818. The house was designed to register all noble families in Finland so that the highest Finnish estate would be representative of the next Finnish Diet. As for Sweden, the majority did not think too much about Finland's conquest, as Sweden itself annexed Norway from Denmark in 1814 and entered a personal union with the nation. Whether or not Alexander purposely ignored the existence of the Diet is debatable, with notable factors such as the fall of Napoleon and the creation of the Holy Alliance, newfound religious mysticism of the Russian crown, and the negative experience with the Polish Sejm. Despite this, Alexander I ceased to give in to Finnish affairs and returned to governing Russia.[9]
Alexander's death and the assimilation of Finland: 1820s–1850s
In 1823, Count Arseny Zakrevsky was made Governor-General of Finland and quickly became unpopular among both Finns and Swedes alike. Zakrevsky abolished the Committee for Finnish Affairs and managed to obtain the right to submit Finnish affairs to the Russian emperor, bypassing the Finnish Secretary of State. Two years later, Alexander I died ( 1 December [O.S. 19 November] 1825). Zakrevsky seized the opportunity to require Finland to swear an oath of fealty which would refer to the emperor as the absolute ruler of Finland – expecting that emperor would be Constantine, Alexander's next-eldest brother. However, Nicholas, younger brother of Constantine and Alexander, became emperor despite the Decembrist revolt against him in December 1825. Nicholas assured Finland's secretary of state, Robert Henrik Rehbinder, that he (Nicholas) would continue to uphold Alexander's liberal policies regarding Finland.
In 1830, Europe became a hotbed of revolution and reform as a result of the July Revolution in France. Poland, another Russian client state, saw a massive uprising against Saint Petersburg during the November Uprising of 1830–1831. Finland made no such move, as Russia had already won over Finnish loyalty. Thus, Russia continued its policies respecting Finnish autonomy and the quiet assimilation of the Finns into the empire. Zakrevsky died in 1831; Knyaz Alexander Sergeyevich Menshikov succeeded him as Governor-General of Finland and continued Finnish appeasement. The appeasement of the Finns could be seen[by whom?] as a prototype of the later Russification, as educated Finns moved to Russia in mass, seeking jobs within the imperial government to rise within Russian imperial society. The Russian language was studied increasingly as well, with more Finns seeking to learn Russian language, politics, culture, and to assimilate into Russian society. Even though Nicholas had no intentions on doing this[clarification needed], his inner office, specifically Nicholas's Interior Minister, Lev Perovski (in office: 1841–1852), advocated for Count Zakrevsky's ideas and further pushed the ideas of subtle Russification during the 1840s.[10]
However, Finland did experience a nationalistic revolution in the 1830s – one based around literature. This marked the beginning of the
Crimean War and 1860s–1870s
The works of
In 1863, Alexander called the Diet and issued that the Finnish language was to be on par with Swedish and Russian in the Grand Duchy, while also passing laws regarding infrastructure and currency. Alexander came to favor the Finnish working class over the Swedish elite, due to Swedish propaganda during the Crimean War urging revolt against the Russians. Alexander also passed a law regarding language ordinance in August 1863, requiring that the Finnish language must be introduced to all public businesses within twenty years. The law was expanded in 1865 to require that state offices must serve the public in Finnish if requested. Despite this, the language laws took time to be fully implemented due to the interference of the Swedish elite, who owned most of these offices and businesses. Despite this, the education laws pushed through and the first secondary schools instructed in Finnish began in the 1870s. [15][16] The power of the Diet was also expanded in 1869, as it allowed the Diet more power and the ability to initiate various legislation; the act also called the tsar to call upon the Diet every five years. An act passed regarding religion was also passed in 1869 which prevented the power of the state over the church. Moreover, Finland also received its own monetary system, the Finnish markka, and its own army.[17] Finland's first railway line was opened between Helsinki and Hämeenlinna on March 17, 1862.[18][19]
Russification
The policies of
Russification only increased from there, but from the 1880s on, the conflict between the Swedish minority halted. Compared to the
Nicholas II ascended to the throne in 1894 after Alexander's death, and with him came General Nikolay Bobrikov, who was appointed governor-general. Under Bobrikov, the Finns had a near collective hatred of him, whose reactionary policies gave rise to socialism and communism among the Finnish working class. The Party of Active Resistance and Kagal, in particular, became very popular in Finland for the former's tactics of violence and the latter's tactic of propaganda and persuasion. At the beginning of this reign, Bobrikov almost immediately introduced a mandatory five-year military service, in which Finns had the possibility of being drafted into Russian units. Furthermore, he instituted that Russians be given the opportunity to serve in public office and that Russian be made the administrative language of Finland. In 1899, the February Manifesto under Nicholas II declared that Russian law was the law of the land, and Finland was to pledge allegiance to Russian law. The Diet was essentially downgraded to a state assembly and that Finland was a province of Russia, ignoring its autonomy. The Finnish Army as a whole was dissolved in 1901.[21][22]
Bobrikov unintentionally united both Finns and Swedes against Russia, which only angered him more. With churches refusing to proclaim the law, judges refusing to carry it out, and conscripts refusing service, Bobrikov went on a frenzy with the current state of Finland. Bobrikov found little support in Finland, mainly from the Russian minority and members of the
In 1905, Russia faced a humiliating defeat in the
Government and politics
The Russian emperor ruled as the Grand Duke of Finland and was represented in Finland by the Governor-General. The Senate of Finland was the highest governing body of the Grand Duchy and was composed of native Finns. In St. Petersburg Finnish matters were represented by the Minister–Secretary of State for Finland. The Senate had a primarily advisory role until it got the right to representation in 1886. On top of having its own central, regional and local administration, Finland had its own stamps, currency and army.
Alexander I did not want the Grand Duchy to be a constitutional monarchy but the governmental institutions born during the Swedish rule offered him a more efficient form of government than the absolute monarchy in Russia. This evolved into a high level of autonomy by the end of the 19th century. There were a total of twenty Governors-General from the Finnish War until independence:[27]
- Göran Magnus Sprengtporten1808–1809
- General Knyaz Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly 1809–1810
- General Count Fabian Steinheil 1810–1823
- Count Gustav Mauritz Armfelt 1812–1813
- General Count Arseny Zakrevsky 1823–1831
- Admiral Aleksander Menshikov 1831–1855
- General Friedrich Wilhelm Rembert Graf von Berg 1855–1861
- General Baron Platon Rokassovsky 1854–1855, 1861–1866
- General Johan Mauritz Nordenstam 1861, 1864, 1868, 1870, 1872–1873
- General Nikolai Adlerberg1866–1881
- General Count Fyodor Logginovich van Heiden 1881–1897
- General-Lieutenant Stepan Goncharov1897–1898
- General Nikolai Bobrikov1898–1904
- General-Lieutenant Knyaz Ivan Obolenski 1904–1905
- Privy Councillor Nikolai Gerard 1905–1908
- General Vladimir von Boeckmann1908–1909
- General-Lieutenant Franz Albert Seyn 1909–1917
- Privy Councilor Adam Lipski 1917
- Mikhail Stakhovich1917
- Nikolai Nekrasov 1917
Provinces
The administrative division of the Grand Duchy followed the Russian imperial model with provinces (Russian: губерния governorate, Swedish: län, Finnish: lääni) headed by governors. Few changes were made however, and as the language of the administrators was still Swedish the old terminology from the Swedish time continued in local use. The Viipuri Province was not initially part of the Grand Duchy, but in 1812 it was transferred by Tsar Alexander I from Russia proper to Finland. After 1831 there were eight provinces in the Grand Duchy until the end and that continued in the independent Finland:
- Turku and Pori Province (Russian: Або-Бьернеборгская губерния, Swedish: Åbo och Björneborgs län, Finnish: Turun ja Porin lääni)
- Kuopio Province (Russian: Куопиоская губерния, Swedish: Kuopio län, Finnish: Kuopion lääni)
- Vaasa Province (Russian: Николайстадская губерния, Swedish: Vasa län, Finnish: Vaasan lääni)
- Uusimaa Province (Russian: Нюландская губерния, Swedish: Nylands län, Finnish: Uudenmaan lääni)
- Mikkeli Province (Russian: Санкт-Михельская губерния, Swedish: S:t Michels län, Finnish: Mikkelin lääni)
- Häme Province (Russian: Тавастгусская губерния, Swedish: Tavastehus län, Finnish: Hämeen lääni)
- Oulu Province (Russian: Улеаборгская губерния, Swedish: Uleåborgs län, Finnish: Oulun lääni)
- Viipuri Province (Russian: Выборгская губерния, Swedish: Viborgs län, Finnish: Viipurin lääni)
Flags
The Grand Duchy of Finland had no official flag, but different types of flags were used in different occasions. An official flag was debated even in the Diet of Finland in the 1860s, but one was never officially chosen.[28]
An official maritime flag was chosen in 1812 for governmental use. It was a white flag, with the Russian flag in the upper corner and a compass rose in the middle. In 1883 it was replaced with a blue cross flag with the compass rose in the upper corner. A post flag (a white flag with the Russian flag in the upper corner and a post horn in the middle) was also used in the Grand Duchy, along with a customs flag (a blue flag, with the Russian flag on the upper corner and the logo of the customs agency in the middle).
Originally, there were no regulations regarding merchant flags until 3 October 1821, when Finnish ships were given the right to fly the Russian flag without permission. White, blue and red flags with the Russian flag in the corner were also used. Later on six and nine-striped flags with the colors of the Russian flag twice or thrice saw some use.[29]
A blue cross flag similar to that of the modern flag of Finland was first used by the yacht club Nyländska Jaktklubben in 1861, equipped with the coat of arms of Uusimaa in the upper corner. It was inspired by the similar flag used by the Neva Yacht Club. The flag of the yacht club was made official by the Senate in 1890 when the Swedish-speaking Östra Nylands Segelförening adopted the Flag of Sweden.[30]
At the end of the 19th century, flags with the
The Grand Duchy of Finland participated in the 1912 Summer Olympics with their own team. In the opening ceremony, the Finnish team marched behind the Russian team with a Finland-sign. In the medal ceremonies, the Russian flag above a white-blue pennant reading "Finland" was raised for the Finnish athletes.[32]
Historical population of the Grand Duchy
- 1810: 863,000[33]
- 1830: 1,372,000
- 1850: 1,637,000
- 1870: 1,769,000
- 1890: 2,380,000
- 1910: 2,943,000
- 1920: 3,148,000 (independent Finland, since 1917)
See also
- Independence of Finland
- Military of the Grand Duchy of Finland
- Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic
- Old Finland
- Congress Poland – Kingdom of Poland (1815–1831), another constitutional monarchy within the Russian Empire
- Åland War
- Governorate of Estonia
- Grand Duchy of Lithuania
- Finnish Civil War
Notes
- ^ Finnish: Suomen suuriruhtinaskunta; Swedish: Storfurstendömet Finland; Russian: Великое княжество Финляндское, Velikoye knyazhestvo Finlyandskoye (all of which literally translate as Grand Principality of Finland)
References
- ^ Jussila, Henttilä & Nevakivi 1995, pp. ix, 1, 10.
- ^ Klinge 1997, Jutikkala & Pirinen 2002, Pulma 2003a, Zetterberg 2003, Jussila 2004, Ylikangas 2007.
- ^ Haapala 1995, Jussila 2004 ja 2007, Ylikangas 2007.
- ^ Leif Tengström: "Muschoviten...Turcken icke olijk" II, 1997, s. 104
- ^ Knapas, Rainer (2014). "Ajankohtainen Armfelt". Tieteessä tapahtuu (in Finnish). Retrieved 2016-04-30.
- ^ Jutikkala & Pirinen 1962, pp. 178–79, 183.
- ^ Jutikkala & Pirinen 1962, p. 185.
- ^ Seton-Watson 1967, pp. 114–15.
- ^ Jutikkala & Pirinen 1962, pp. 191–92, 194.
- ^ Jutikkala & Pirinen 1962, pp. 195–96.
- ^ Jutikkala & Pirinen 1962, pp. 199–206.
- ^ Hall 1953, pp. 127–28.
- ^ Mäkinen 2015, pp. 292–95.
- ^ Mäkinen 2015, pp. 295–96.
- ^ Hall 1953, p. 128.
- ^ Seton-Watson 1967, pp. 415–16.
- ^ Jutikkala & Pirinen 1962, pp. 215–16, 222.
- ISBN 978-1566565448.
- ^ "Tulihevonen saapui ensi kerran Hämeenlinnaan 150 vuotta sitten" [The "fire horse" arrived first time in Hämeenlinna 150 years ago]. Yle Häme (in Finnish). Yle. January 31, 2012. Retrieved March 17, 2022.
- ^ Jutikkala & Pirinen 1962, pp. 222–24.
- ^ Jutikkala & Pirinen 1962, pp. 229–32.
- ^ a b Seton-Watson 1967, pp. 498–99.
- S2CID 97163876.
- ^ Seton-Watson 1967, pp. 668–69.
- ^ Jutikkala & Pirinen 1962, pp. 242–55.
- ^ Hall 1953, p. 129.
- ^ Apunen 1987, Jutikkala & Pirinen 2002, Pulma 2003a, Jussila 2004
- ^ Kajanti 1997 p. 110–140
- ^ Kajanti 1997 ss. 88–90
- ^ Kajanti 1997 s. 79–80
- ^ Kajanti 1997 p. 164
- ^ Kajanti 1997 p. 176–178
- ^ B. R. Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, 1750–1970 (Columbia U.P., 1978), p. 4
Bibliography
- Hall, Wendy (1953), Green, Gold, and Granite, London: Max Parrish & Co.
- Jussila, Osmo; Henttilä, Seppo; Nevakivi, Jukka (1995), From Grand Duchy to a Modern State, London, United Kingdom: Hurst & Company.
- Jutikkala, Eino; Pirinen, Kauko (1962), A History of Finland (rev. ed.), New York, Washington: Praeger Publishers.
- Mäkinen, Ilkka. (Winter 2015), "From Literacy to Love of Reading: The Fennomanian Ideology of Reading in the 19th-Century Finland", Journal of Social History, 49 (2).
- Seton-Watson, Hugh (1967), The Russian Empire 1801–1917, London: Oxford.
Further reading
- Alenius, Kari. "Russification in Estonia and Finland Before 1917", Faravid, 2004, Vol. 28, pp. 181–94 Online
- Huxley, Steven. Constitutionalist insurgency in Finland: Finnish "passive resistance" against Russification as a case of nonmilitary struggle in the European resistance tradition (1990)
- Jussila, Osmo, et al. From Grand Duchy to a Modern State: A Political History of Finland Since 1809 (Hurst & Co. 1999).
- Kan, Aleksander. "Storfurstendömet Finland 1809–1917 – dess autonomi enligt den nutida finska historieskrivningen" (in Swedish) ["Autonomous Finland 1809–1917 in contemporary Finnish historiography"] Historisk Tidskrift, 2008, Issue 1, pp. 3–27
- Polvinen, Tuomo. Imperial Borderland: Bobrikov and the Attempted Russification of Finland, 1898–1904 (1995) Duke University Press. 342 pp.
- Thaden, Edward C. Russification in the Baltic Provinces and Finland (1981). JSTOR