Alexander I of Russia
Alexander I | |
---|---|
Emperor of Russia | |
Reign | 23 March 1801 – 1 December 1825 |
Coronation | 15 (27) September 1801 |
Predecessor | Paul I |
Successor | Nicholas I |
Born | Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire | 23 December 1777
Died | 1 December 1825[1] Taganrog, Russian Empire | (aged 47)
Burial | 13 March 1826 |
Spouse |
Russian Orthodox |
Signature | |
Military service | |
Branch/service | Imperial Russian Army |
Battles/wars | |
Alexander I (
The son of
In foreign policy, he changed Russia's position towards France four times between 1804 and 1812 among neutrality, opposition, and alliance. In 1805 he joined Britain in the
During the second half of his reign, Alexander became increasingly arbitrary, reactionary, and fearful of plots against him; as a result he ended many of the reforms he made earlier. He purged schools of foreign teachers, as education became more religiously driven as well as politically conservative.
Early life
Alexander was born at 10:45, on 23 December 1777 in
On 9 October 1793, when Alexander was still 15 years old, he married 14-year-old Princess Louise of Baden, who took the name Elizabeth Alexeievna.[15] His grandmother was the one who presided over his marriage to the young princess.[16] Until his grandmother's death, he was constantly walking the line of allegiance between his grandmother and his father. His steward Nikolai Saltykov helped him navigate the political landscape, engendering dislike for his grandmother and dread in dealing with his father.[citation needed]
Catherine had the Alexander Palace built for the couple. This did nothing to help his relationship with her, as Catherine would go out of her way to amuse them with dancing and parties, which annoyed his wife. Living at the palace also put pressure on him to perform as a husband, though he felt only a brother's love for the Grand Duchess.[17] He began to sympathize more with his father, as he saw visiting his father's fiefdom at Gatchina Palace as a relief from the ostentatious court of the empress. There, they wore simple Prussian military uniforms, instead of the gaudy clothing popular at the French court they had to wear when visiting Catherine. Even so, visiting the tsarevich did not come without a bit of travail. Paul liked to have his guests perform military drills, which he also pushed upon his sons Alexander and Constantine. He was also prone to fits of temper, and he often went into fits of rage when events did not go his way.[18]
Tsarevich
Catherine's death in November 1796, before she could appoint Alexander as her successor, brought his father, Paul, to the throne. Alexander disliked him as emperor even more than he did his grandmother. He wrote that Russia had become a "plaything for the insane" and that "absolute power disrupts everything". It is likely that seeing two previous rulers abuse their autocratic powers in such a way pushed him to be one of the more progressive Romanov tsars of the 19th century. Among the rest of the country, Paul was widely unpopular. He accused his wife of conspiring to become another Catherine and seize power from him as his mother did from his father. He also suspected Alexander of conspiring against him, despite his son's earlier refusal to seize power from Paul.[19]
Emperor
Ascension
Alexander became Emperor of Russia when his father was assassinated on 23 March 1801. Alexander, then 23 years old, was in the
Domestic policy
The Orthodox Church initially exercised little influence on Alexander's life. The young emperor was determined to reform the inefficient, highly centralised systems of government that Russia relied upon. While retaining for a time the old ministers, one of the first acts of his reign was to appoint the Private Committee, comprising young and enthusiastic friends of his own—Viktor Kochubey, Nikolay Novosiltsev, Pavel Stroganov and Adam Jerzy Czartoryski—to draw up a plan of domestic reform, which was supposed to result in the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in accordance with the teachings of the Age of Enlightenment.[22]
A few years into his reign the liberal Mikhail Speransky became one of the emperor's closest advisors, and he drew up many plans for elaborate reforms. In the Government reform of Alexander I the old Collegia were abolished and new Ministries were created in their place, led by ministers responsible to the Crown. A Council of Ministers under the chairmanship of the Sovereign dealt with all interdepartmental matters. The State Council was created to improve the technique of legislation. It was intended to become the Second Chamber of a representative legislature. The Governing Senate was reorganized as the Supreme Court of the Empire. The codification of the laws initiated in 1801 was never carried out during his reign.[23]
Alexander wanted to resolve another crucial issue in Russia, the
When Alexander's reign began, there were three universities in Russia, at
After 1815 the
Views held by his contemporaries
Called an autocrat and "
Napoleonic Wars
Alliances with other powers
Upon his accession, Alexander reversed many of the unpopular policies of his father, Paul, denounced the League of Armed Neutrality, and made peace with Britain (April 1801). At the same time he opened negotiations with Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor. Soon afterwards at Memel he entered into a close alliance with Prussia, not as he boasted from motives of policy, but in the spirit of true chivalry, out of friendship for the young King Frederick William III and his beautiful wife Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.[27]
The development of this alliance was interrupted by the short-lived peace of October 1801, and for a while it seemed as though
Opposition to Napoleon
In opposing Napoleon I, "the oppressor of Europe and the disturber of the world's peace," Alexander in fact already believed himself to be fulfilling a divine mission. In his instructions to Niklolay Novosiltsev, his special envoy in London, the emperor elaborated the motives of his policy in language that appealed little to the prime minister, William Pitt the Younger. Yet the document is of great interest, as it formulates for the first time in an official dispatch the ideals of international policy that were to play a conspicuous part in world affairs at the close of the revolutionary epoch.[c] Alexander argued that the outcome of the war was not only to be the liberation of France, but the universal triumph of "the sacred rights of humanity".[27] To attain this it would be necessary "after having attached the nations to their government by making these incapable of acting save in the greatest interests of their subjects, to fix the relations of the states amongst each other on more precise rules, and such as it is to their interest to respect".[27]
A general treaty was to become the main basis of the relations of the states forming "the European Confederation".[27] While he believed the effort would not attain universal peace, it would be worthwhile if it established clear principles for the prescriptions of the rights of nations.[27] The body would assure "the positive rights of nations" and "the privilege of neutrality," while asserting the obligation to exhaust all resources of mediation to retain peace, and would form "a new code of the law of nations".[29]
1807 loss to French forces
Meanwhile, Napoleon, a little deterred by the Russian autocrat's youthful ideology, never gave up hope of detaching him from the coalition. He had no sooner entered
The two Emperors met at
Prussia
The brilliance of these new visions did not, however, blind Alexander to the obligations of friendship, and he refused to retain the Danubian principalities as the price for suffering a further dismemberment of Prussia. "We have made loyal war", he said, "we must make a loyal peace".[27] It was not long before the first enthusiasm of Tilsit began to wane. The French remained in Prussia, the Russians on the Danube, and each accused the other of breach of faith. Meanwhile, however, the personal relations of Alexander and Napoleon were of the most cordial character, and it was hoped that a fresh meeting might adjust all differences between them. The meeting took place at Erfurt in October 1808 and resulted in a treaty that defined the common policy of the two Emperors. But Alexander's relations with Napoleon nonetheless suffered a change. He realised that in Napoleon sentiment never got the better of reason, that as a matter of fact he had never intended his proposed "grand enterprise" seriously, and had only used it to preoccupy the mind of the Tsar while he consolidated his own power in Central Europe. From this moment the French alliance was for Alexander also not a fraternal agreement to rule the world, but an affair of pure policy. He used it initially to remove "the geographical enemy" from the gates of Saint Petersburg by wresting Finland from Sweden (1809), and he hoped further to make the Danube the southern frontier of Russia.[27]
Franco-Russian alliance
Events were rapidly heading towards the rupture of the Franco-Russian alliance. While Alexander assisted Napoleon in the War of the Fifth Coalition in 1809, he declared plainly that he would not allow the Austrian Empire to be crushed out of existence. Napoleon subsequently complained bitterly of the inactivity of the Russian troops during the campaign. The tsar in turn protested against Napoleon's encouragement of the Poles. In the matter of the French alliance he knew himself to be practically isolated in Russia, and he declared that he could not sacrifice the interest of his people and empire to his affection for Napoleon. "I don't want anything for myself", he said to the French ambassador, "therefore the world is not large enough to come to an understanding on the affairs of Poland, if it is a question of its restoration".[31][32]
Alexander complained that the Treaty of Schönbrunn, which added largely to the Duchy of Warsaw, had "ill requited him for his loyalty", and he was only mollified for the time being by Napoleon's public declaration that he had no intention of restoring Poland, and by a convention, signed on 4 January 1810, but not ratified, abolishing the Polish name and orders of chivalry.[33]
But if Alexander suspected Napoleon's intentions, Napoleon was no less suspicious of Alexander. Partly to test his sincerity, Napoleon sent an almost peremptory request for the hand of the grand-duchess
Another personal grievance for Alexander towards Napoleon was the annexation of Oldenburg by France in December 1810, as Wilhelm, Duke of Oldenburg (3 January 1754 – 2 July 1823) was the uncle of the tsar. Furthermore, the disastrous impact of the Continental System on Russian trade made it impossible for the emperor to maintain a policy that was Napoleon's chief motive for the alliance.[33]
Alexander kept Russia as neutral as possible in the ongoing French war with Britain, Russia's own war with Britain barely any more than nominal. He allowed trade to continue secretly with Britain and did not enforce the blockade required by the Continental System.[34] In 1810, he withdrew Russia from the Continental System and trade between Britain and Russia grew.[35]
Relations between France and Russia worsened progressively after 1810. By 1811, it became clear that Napoleon was not adhering to his side of the terms of the Treaty of Tilsit. He had promised assistance to Russia in its war against the Ottoman Empire, but as the campaign went on, France offered no support at all.[34]
With war imminent between France and Russia, Alexander started to prepare the ground diplomatically. In April 1812, Russia and Sweden signed a treaty for mutual defence. A month later, Alexander secured his southern flank through the Treaty of Bucharest (1812), which ended the war against the Ottomans formally.[35] His diplomats managed to extract promises from Prussia and Austria that should Napoleon invade Russia, the former would help Napoleon as little as possible and that the latter would give no aid at all.[citation needed]
The minister of war, Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, had managed the reform and improvement of the Imperial Russian Army before the start of the 1812 campaign. Primarily on the advice of his sister and Count Aleksey Arakcheyev, Alexander did not take operational control as he had done during the 1805 campaign, instead delegating control to his generals, Barclay de Tolly, Prince Pyotr Bagration and Mikhail Kutuzov.[35]
War against Persia
Despite brief hostilities in the
On 23 May 1804, Persia demanded withdrawal from the regions Russia had occupied, comprising what is now
French invasion
In the summer of 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia. It was the occupation of Moscow and the desecration of the Kremlin, considered to be the sacred centre of Holy Russia, that changed Alexander's sentiment for Napoleon into passionate hatred.[42][d] The campaign of 1812 was the turning point for Alexander's life; after the burning of Moscow, he declared that his own soul had found illumination, and that he had realized once and for all the divine revelation to him of his mission as the peacemaker of Europe.[33]
While the Russian army retreated deep into Russia for almost three months, the nobility pressured Alexander to relieve the commander of the Russian army, Field Marshal Barclay de Tolly. Alexander complied and appointed Prince Mikhail Kutuzov to take over command of the army. On 7 September, the Grande Armée faced the Russian army at a small village called Borodino, 110 kilometres (70 mi) west of Moscow. The battle that followed was the largest and bloodiest single-day action of the Napoleonic Wars, involving more than 250,000 soldiers and resulting in 70,000 casualties. The outcome of the battle was inconclusive. The Russian army, undefeated in spite of heavy losses, was able to withdraw the following day, leaving the French without the decisive victory Napoleon sought.[citation needed]
A week later
The campaign was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars.[citation needed] Napoleon's reputation was severely shaken, and French hegemony in Europe was weakened. The Grande Armée, made up of French and allied forces, was reduced to a fraction of its initial strength.[citation needed] These events triggered a major shift in European politics. France's ally Prussia, soon followed by Austria, broke their imposed alliance with Napoleon and switched sides, triggering the War of the Sixth Coalition.[citation needed]
War of the Sixth Coalition
With the Russian army following up victory over Napoleon in 1812, the Sixth Coalition was formed with Russia, Prussia, Great Britain, Sweden, Spain, and other nations. Although the French were victorious in the initial battles during the
The Coalition forces, divided into three groups, entered northeastern France in January 1814. Facing them in the theatre were the French forces numbering only about 70,000 men. In spite of being heavily outnumbered, Napoleon defeated the divided Coalition forces in the battles at Brienne and La Rothière, but could not stop the Coalition's advance and triumphant victory over Napoleon. Austrian Emperor Francis I and King Frederick William III of Prussia felt demoralized upon hearing about Napoleon's victories since the start of the campaign. They even considered ordering a general retreat. But Alexander was far more determined than ever to victoriously enter Paris whatever the cost, imposing his will upon Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg, and the wavering monarchs.[43] On 28 March, Coalition forces advanced towards Paris and prepared to launch an assault.
Camping outside the city on 29 March, the Coalition armies were to assault the city from its northern and eastern sides the next morning on 30 March. The
Alexander sent an envoy to meet with the French to hasten the surrender. He offered generous terms to the French and although having intended to avenge Moscow,
On 2 April, the Sénat conservateur passed the Acte de déchéance de l'Empereur, which declared Napoleon deposed. Napoleon was in Fontainebleau when he heard that Paris had surrendered. Outraged, he wanted to march on the capital, but his marshals refused to fight for him and repeatedly urged him to surrender. He abdicated in favour of his son on 4 April, but the Allies rejected this out of hand, forcing Napoleon to abdicate unconditionally on 6 April. The terms of his abdication, which included his exile to the Isle of Elba, were settled in the Treaty of Fontainebleau on 11 April. A reluctant Napoleon ratified it two days later, marking the end of the War of the Sixth Coalition.[citation needed]
Postbellum
Peace of Paris and the Congress of Vienna
Alexander tried to calm the unrest of his conscience by correspondence with the leaders of the evangelical revival on the continent, and sought for omens and supernatural guidance in texts and passages of scripture. It was not, however, according to his own account, until he met the Baroness de Krüdener—a religious adventuress who made the conversion of princes her special mission—at Basel, in the autumn of 1813, that his soul found peace. From this time a mystic pietism became the avowed force of his political, as of his private actions. Madame de Krüdener, and her colleague, the evangelist Henri-Louis Empaytaz, became the confidants of the emperor's most secret thoughts; and during the campaign that ended in the occupation of Paris the imperial prayer-meetings were the oracle on whose revelations hung the fate of the world.[33]
Such was Alexander's mood when the downfall of Napoleon left him one of the most powerful sovereigns in Europe. With the memory of the
Liberal political views
He still declared his belief in free institutions with limitations. "Liberty", he maintained, "should be confined within just limits. And the limits of liberty are the principles of order".
The issue was momentous. In January Alexander had still upheld the ideal of a free confederation of the European states, symbolised by the Holy Alliance, against the policy of a dictatorship of the great powers, symbolised by the Quadruple Treaty; he had still protested against the claims of collective Europe to interfere in the internal concerns of the sovereign states. He gave in on 19 November by signing the Troppau Protocol, which consecrated the principle of intervention.[15]
Revolt of the Greeks
At the Congress of Laibach, which had been adjourned in the spring of 1821, Alexander received news of the Greek revolt against the Ottoman Empire. From this time until his death, Alexander's mind was conflicted between his dreams of a stable confederation of Europe and his traditional mission as leader of the Orthodox crusade against the Ottomans. At first, under the careful advice of Metternich, Alexander chose the former.[27]
Siding against the Greek revolt for the sake of stability in the region, Alexander expelled its leader
He made some effort to reconcile the principles at conflict in his mind. The
Metternich's opposition to this assertion of Russian power, putting the Austrian-led balance of power above the interests of Christendom, first opened Alexander's eyes to the true character of Austria's attitude towards his ideals. Once more in Russia, far from the fascination of Metternich's personality, he was once again moved by the aspirations of his people.[27]
In 1823 the 1817–1824 cholera pandemic reached Astrakhan and the Tsar ordered an anti-cholera campaign that was imitated in other countries.
Personal life
On 9 October 1793, Alexander married Louise of Baden, known as Elizabeth Alexeievna after her conversion to the Orthodox Church. He later told his friend Frederick William III that the marriage, a political match devised by his grandmother, Catherine the Great, regrettably proved to be a misfortune for him and his spouse.[15] Their two children died young,[54] though their common sorrow drew the spouses closer together. Towards the end of Alexander's life their reconciliation was completed by the wise charity of the Empress in sympathising deeply with him over the death of his beloved daughter Sophia Naryshkina, the daughter of his mistress Maria Naryshkina,[15] with whom he had a relationship from 1799 until 1818. In 1809, Alexander I was widely and famously rumoured to have had an affair with the Finnish noblewoman Ulla Möllersvärd and to have had a child by her, but this is not confirmed.[55]
Death
With his mental health deteriorating, Alexander grew increasingly suspicious of those around him, more withdrawn, more religious, and more passive. Some historians conclude his profile "coincides precisely with the
-
Death of Alexander I in Taganrog (19th century lithograph)
-
Alexander I Palace in Taganrog, where the emperor died in 1825
-
The funeral procession from Taganrog to St. Petersburg
Conspiracy Theory about Death
Many believe that Tsar Alexander I faked his death and lived as a hermit by name of Feodor Kuzmich, although this fact is debated by historians and some reject the legend; however, popular writers often resurrect them.[61] The main claim for the belief that Alexander I faked his death involves the curious similarities between Alexander and Kuzmich. Svetlana Semyonova, president of Russian Graphological Society, analyzed both Alexander's and Kuzmich's handwriting and concluded that they were the same. Furthermore, there are rumors that Alexander's wife also faked her death a year after his death and became a nun in Saint Petersburg. The priest attending Feodor Kuzmich on his deathbed reportedly asked him if he was, in fact, Alexander the Blessed. In response, Kuzmich said, "Your works are wonderful, Lord ... There is no secret, which is not opened."[62]
Children
Name | Birth | Death | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
By his wife Louise of Baden | |||
Maria/Maryia Alexandrovna, Grand Duchess of Russia | 18/29 May 1799 | 27 July / 8 August 1800[65] | Sometimes rumoured to be the child of Adam Czartoryski, died aged one.[citation needed] |
Elisabeta/Elisaveta Alexandrovna, Grand Duchess of Russia | 15 November 1806 | 12 May 1808 | Sometimes rumoured to be the child of Alexei Okhotnikov, died aged one of an infection.[citation needed] |
By Maria Narishkin | |||
Zenaida Narishkina | c. 19 December 1807 | 18 June 1810 | Died aged four.[citation needed] |
Sophia Narishkina | 1 October 1805 | 18 June 1824 | Died aged eighteen, unmarried.[citation needed] |
Emanuel Narishkin | 30 July 1813 | 31 December 1901/13 January 1902 | Married Catherine Novossiltzev, no issue. *unconfirmed and disputed[citation needed] |
By Sophia Sergeievna Vsevolozhskaya | |||
Nikolai Yevgenyevich Lukash |
11 December 1796 | 20 January 1868 | Married Princess Alexandra Lukanichna Guidianova and had issue. Secondly, he married Princess Alexandra Mikhailovna Schakhovskaya and had issue.[66] |
By Marguerite Georges | |||
Maria Alexandrovna Parijskaia | 19 March 1814 | 1874 | |
By Helena Dzierżanowska | |||
Gustaw Ehrenberg | c. 14 February 1818 | 28 September 1895 | Polish revolutionary and poet, best known for his poem "Gdy naród do boju", which became a famous revolutionary tune with the melody composed by Fryderyk Chopin.[citation needed][67] |
Archives
Alexander's letters to his grandfather, Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg, (together with letters from his siblings) written between 1795 and 1797, are preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart (Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart) in Stuttgart, Germany.[68]
Honours
He received the following orders and decorations:[69]
- Russian Empire:[70]
- Knight of St. Andrew
- Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky
- Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class
- Grand Cross of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem
- Sweden:
- Knight of the Seraphim, 16 November 1799[71]
- Grand Cross of the Sword, 1st Class, 15 January 1814[72]
- Kingdom of Prussia:
- Knight of the Black Eagle, 30 November 1779[73]
- Iron Cross (1813) 2nd Class
- Two Sicilies: Knight of St. Januarius, 1800[74]
- France:
- French Empire: Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour, 7 July 1807[75]
- Kingdom of France:
- Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 1815
- Knight of the Holy Spirit, 1815[76]
- Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 2 July 1808[77]
- United Kingdom: Stranger Knight of the Garter, 27 July 1813[78]
- Kingdom of Bavaria: Knight of St. Hubert, 1813[79]
- Spain: Knight of the Golden Fleece, 30 May 1814[80]
- Austrian Empire: Knight of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, 1815[81]
- Grand Cross of the Military William Order, 19 November 1818[82]
- Kingdom of Sardinia: Knight of the Annunciation, 5 November 1822[83]
- Kingdom of Portugal: Grand Cross of the Sash of the Three Orders, 10 February 1824[84]
- Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the White Falcon[85]
Ancestry
See also
Notes
- ^ During Alexander's lifetime Russia used the Julian calendar (Old Style), but unless otherwise stated, any date in this article uses the Gregorian Calendar (New Style)—see the article "Old Style and New Style dates" for a more detailed explanation.
- ^ Russian: Благословенный, romanized: Blagoslovenny
- Nicholas II and the conference of The Hague (Phillips 1911, p. 557 cites: Circular of Count Muraviev, 24 August 1898).
- ^ On the historiography, see Lieven 2006, pp. 283–308.
- ISBN 978-0-521-54323-1.
- ^ Maiorova 2010, p. 114.
- ^ Walker 1992, pp. 343–360.
- ^ "Читать". Литмир – электронная библиотека. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
- ^ "Alexander I". Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. Retrieved 1 January 2009.
- ^ "Vikent - Детство и юность императора Александра I". vikent.ru. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
- ^ "Alexander I of Russia". history.wikireading.ru. Archived from the original on 28 July 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
- ^ "HTC: Liturgical Ranks". www.holy-trinity.org. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
- ^ "Александро-Невская Лавра - Панфилов Иоанн Иоаннович". lavraspb.ru. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
- ^ "Читать". Литмир – электронная библиотека. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
- ^ "Александр I". www.museum.ru. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
- ^ "Александр I Павлович". myhistorypark.ru (in Russian). Retrieved 27 July 2021.
- ^ McGrew 1992, p. 184
- ^ a b c d e Phillips 1911, p. 556.
- ^ a b c d Phillips 1911, p. 559.
- ^ Sebag Montefiore 2016, p. 353.
- ^ Sebag Montefiore 2016, pp. 354–356.
- ^ Sebag Montefiore 2016, p. 357.
- ^ Sebag Montefiore 2016, p. 384.
- ^ Palmer 1974, ch 3.
- ^ Olivier 2019.
- ^ Palmer 1974, pp. 52–55.
- ^ Palmer 1974, pp. 168–72.
- ^ McCaffray 2005, pp. 1–21.
- ^ Flynn 1988, p. [page needed].
- ^ Lipscomb, Bergh & Johnston 1903, p. [page needed]; Jefferson to Priestley, Washington, 29 November 1802
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Phillips 1911, p. 557.
- ^ Esdaile 2009, pp. 192–193.
- ^ Phillips 1911, p. 557 cites Instructions to M. Novosiltsov, 11 September 1804. Tatischeff, p. 82
- ^ Phillips 1911, p. 557 cites: Savary to Napoleon, 18 November 1807. Tatischeff, p. 232.
- ^ Phillips 1911, pp. 557, 558 cites: Coulaincourt to Napoleon, 4th report, 3 August 1809. Tatischeff, p. 496.
- ^ Zawadzki 2009, pp. 110–124.
- ^ a b c d e f g Phillips 1911, p. 558.
- ^ a b Nolan 2002, p. 1666.
- ^ a b c Chapman 2001, p. 29.
- ^ Tedsnet.
- ^ Kazemzadeh 2013, p. 5.
- ^ Avery et al. 1991, p. 332.
- ^ Baddeley 1908, p. 67 cites "Tsitsianoff's report to the Emperor: Akti, ix (supplement), p. 920".
- ^ Mansoori 2008, p. 245.
- ^ Yemelianova 2014.
- ^ Phillips 1911, p. 558 cites: Alexander speaking to Colonel Michaud. Tatischeff, p. 612.
- ^ Sebag Montefiore 2016, p. 313.
- ^ Mikaberidze 2013, p. 255.
- ^ Mikhailovsky-Danilevsky 1839, pp. 347–372.
- ^ Montefiore 2016, p. 313.
- ^ Maude 1911, p. 223.
- ^ Phillips 1911, p. 558 cites Castlereagh to Liverpool, 2 October 1814. F.O. Papers. Vienna VII.
- ISBN 9780199981489.
- ISBN 9780230118928.
- ^ Phillips 1911, p. 558 cites: Despatch of Lieven, 30 Nov (12 Dec.), 1819, and Russ. Circular of 27 January 1820. Martens IV. part i. p. 270.
- ^ Phillips 1911, pp. 558, 559 cites: Aperçu des idées de l'Empereur, Martens IV. part i. p. 269.
- ^ Phillips 1911, p. 559 cites: Metternich Mem.
- ^ Palmer 1974, pp. 154–55.
- ^ Mäkelä-Alitalo 2006.
- ^ Nichols 1982, p. 41.
- ^ Cox 1987, p. 121.
- ^ Truscott 1997, p. 26.
- ISBN 978-0-521-54323-1.
- ^ Palmer 1974, ch 22.
- ISBN 978-1-56324-759-0.
- ^ "Святой праведный старец Феодор Томский". † Православие в Томске. Retrieved 3 November 2023.
- ^ Palmer 1974, p. [page needed].
- ^ McNaughton 1973, pp. 293–306.
- ^ Manifesto
- ^ Genealogy of Nikolai Lukash. Retrieved 20 January 2021
- ^ Ehrenberg, Gustaw. "Szlachta w roku 1831". Wolne Lektury. Retrieved 14 February 2023.
- ^ "Herzog Friedrich Eugen (1732-1797) - Briefwechsel des Herzogs mit dem kaiserlichen Hause von Russland, 1795-1797 - 3. Schreiben der jungen Großfürsten Alexander und Konstantin und Großfürstinnen Alexandrina, Anna, Katharina, Elisabeth, Helene, Maria". Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
- ^ Russian Imperial Army - Emperor Alexander I Pavlovich of Russia (In Russian)
- ^ Almanach de la cour: pour l'année ... 1799. l'Académie Imp. des Sciences. 1799. pp. 45, 52, 61, 85.
- ISBN 91-630-6744-7.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ Posttidningar, 30 April 1814, p. 2
- ^ Liste der Ritter des Königlich Preußischen Hohen Ordens vom Schwarzen Adler (1851), "Von Seiner Majestät dem Könige Friedrich Wilhelm II. ernannte Ritter" p. 10
- ^ Angelo Scordo, Vicende e personaggi dell'Insigne e reale Ordine di San Gennaro dalla sua fondazione alla fine del Regno delle Due Sicilie (PDF) (in Italian), p. 9, archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016
- ISBN 978-2-35077-135-9.
- ^ Teulet, Alexandre (1863). "Liste chronologique des chevaliers de l'ordre du Saint-Esprit depuis son origine jusqu'à son extinction (1578-1830)" [Chronological list of knights of the Order of the Holy Spirit from its origin to its extinction (1578-1830)]. Annuaire-bulletin de la Société de l'histoire de France (in French) (2): 113. Retrieved 20 May 2020.
- ^ J ..... -H ..... -Fr ..... Berlien (1846). Der Elephanten-Orden und seine Ritter. Berling. pp. 124–125.
- ^ Shaw, Wm. A. (1906) The Knights of England, I, London, p. 51
- ^ Bayern (1824). Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Königreichs Bayern: 1824. Landesamt. p. 6.
- ^ Guerra, Francisco (1819), "Caballeros Existentes en la Insignie Orden del Toison de Oro", Calendario manual y guía de forasteros en Madrid (in Spanish): 42, retrieved 2 November 2020
- ^ "Ritter-Orden: Militärischer Maria-Theresien-Orden", Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Kaiserthumes Österreich, 1824, p. 17, retrieved 2 November 2020
- ^ "Militaire Willems-Orde: Romanov, Aleksandr I Pavlovitsj" [Military William Order: Romanov, Alexander I Pavlovich]. Ministerie van Defensie (in Dutch). 19 November 1818. Retrieved 2 November 2020.
- ^ Luigi Cibrario (1869). Notizia storica del nobilissimo ordine supremo della santissima Annunziata. Sunto degli statuti, catalogo dei cavalieri. Eredi Botta. p. 102.
- ^ Bragança, Jose Vicente de; Estrela, Paulo Jorge (2017). "Troca de Decorações entre os Reis de Portugal e os Imperadores da Rússia" [Exchange of Decorations between the Kings of Portugal and the Emperors of Russia]. Pro Phalaris (in Portuguese). 16: 9. Retrieved 2 November 2020.
- ^ Staatshandbuch für das Großherzogtum Sachsen / Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach (1819), "Großherzogliche Hausorden" p. 8
- ^ Aleksandr Kamenskii, The Russian Empire in the Eighteenth Century: Searching for a Place in the World (1997) pp 265–280.
- ^ a b c Berlin 1768, p. 22.
- ^ a b c d Berlin 1768, p. 21.
- ^ a b Berlin 1768, p. 110.
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Attribution:
- public domain: Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). "Alexander I.". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 556–559. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
Further reading
- Hartley, Janet M. et al. eds. Russia and the Napoleonic Wars (2015), new scholarship
- Lieven, Dominic. Russia Against Napoleon (2011) excerpt
- McConnell, Allen. Tsar Alexander I: Paternalistic Reformer (1970) online free to borrow
- Palmer, Alan. Alexander I: Tsar of War and Peace (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1974)
- Rey, Marie-Pierre. Alexander I.: the Tsar who defeated Napoleon (2012)
- Troyat, Henri. Alexander of Russia (Hodder & Stoughton, 1984)
- Zawadzki, Hubert. "Between Napoleon and Tsar Alexander: The Polish Question at Tilsit, 1807." Central Europe 7.2 (2009): 110–124.
External links
- Media related to Alexander I of Russia at Wikimedia Commons