Moroccan literature
Moroccan literature |
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Moroccan writers |
Forms |
Criticism and awards |
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Moroccan literature are the written and oral works of Moroccan culture. These works have been produced and shared by people who lived in Morocco and the historical states that have existed partially or entirely within the geographical area of modern-day Morocco. Apart from the various forms of oral literature, the written literature of Morocco encompasses various genres, including poetry, prose, theater, and nonfiction including philosphical and religious literature. Moroccan literature has mainly been written in Arabic and French,[1] and to a lesser extent also in Berber languages, Judeo-Arabic, Spanish, and after the mid-19th century in English.[2][pages needed] Through translations into English and other languages, Moroccan literature has become accessible to readers worldwide.[3]
Most of the literature written by Moroccans was created since the arrival of Islam in the 8th century, before which native Berber communities primarily had oral literary traditions.[4]
Mauro-Andalusi
According to
Idrissid period
Sebta, Tangier, Basra (a settlement founded by the Idrissids near al-Qasar al-Kebir), and Asilah were important cultural centers during the Idrissid period.[5]
Barghwata
University of al-Qarawiyyin
Judeo-Moroccan literature
An early example of Judeo-Moroccan literature is the 9th-century Risalah of
Almoravid period
The historian
Zajal
Under the Almoravids, Mauro-Andalusi strophic
Muwashah poetry
A great number of poets from the Almoravid period in al-Andalus, such as the writers of
Almohad period
Under the
The
Mohamed Jabroun argued that it was under the Almohads that madrasas first appeared in Morocco, starting under the reign of Abd al-Mu'min, in order to train those who would take roles in the empire's leadership and administration.[26]
In this period,
Judeo-Moroccan literature in the Middle Ages
Jewish culture experienced a golden age in the medieval Western Islamic world, particularly in literature.[29] Among the most prominent Jewish writers of this period were Isaac Alfasi, Joseph ben Judah ibn Aknin, and Maimonides, author of The Guide for the Perplexed.[29]
Decline of Mauro-Andalusi literature
Marinid period
Sultans of the
The first record of a work of literature composed in Moroccan Darija was Al-Kafif az-Zarhuni's al-Mala'ba, written in the period of Sultan Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman.[33] Muhammad al-Jazuli, one of the Seven Saints of Marrakesh, wrote Dala'il al-Khayrat, a Sufi prayer book with a wide impact throughout the Islamic world, in the 15th century.[34]
Wattasid period
In 1516, Samuel ibn Ishaq Nedivot and his son Isaac, Andalusi Jewish refugees from Lisbon, produced the first printed book on the African continent, the Sefer Abudarham (ספר אבודרהם) in Fes.[35][36][37]
Saadi period
The possession of
Tarikh as-Sudan, of the Timbuktu Chronicles, was composed by Abd ar-Rahman as-Sa’di, a chronicler from Timbuktu who served Morocco as governor of Djenné and head administrator of the Arma bureaucracy.[41] It is considered the most important primary source document on the Songhai Empire.[41]
Ahmad Baba al-Timbukti was among the greatest scholars of Timbuktu when it was conquered by the Saadi Sultanate, and he continued his scholarly activities after being exiled to Fes.[42] In addition to writing prolifically in law, grammar, fiqh, and literature, he wrote The Ladder of Ascent in Obtaining the Procurements of the Sudan, responding to a Moroccan's questions about slavery in the Bilad as-Sudan.[43]
Alawi period
In 1737, the Shaykh Muhammad al-Mu’ta bin al-Salih al-Sharqi began his work on Dhakhirat al-Muhtaj fi sala ‘ala Sahib al-Liwa wat-taj,[45] an influential Sufi book on prayer, dhikr, and repentance.[46][47]
Ahmed at-Tijani, originally from Aïn Madhi in Algeria, lived in Fes, associated with the North African literary elite, and later established the Tijaniyyah Sufi order.[48] The Ulama' of the Tijaniyyah order, with Fes as their spiritual capital, were among the most prolific producers of literature in the Maghreb.[48] Mohammed al-Haik's late 18th-century songbook Kunnash al-Haik is a seminal text of Andalusi music.[49]
In the year 1886, the historian Mohammed Akensus al-Murrakushi authored his magnum opus al-Jaysh al-ʻaramram al-khumāsī fī dawlat awlād Mawlānā ʻAlī al-Sajilmāsī on the reign of Sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah.[50]
The Rabbi of Tetuan Isaac Ben Walid wrote Vayomer Yitzhak (Hebrew: ויאמר יצחק, lit. 'Thus Spoke Isaac') chronicling the history of the Jews of Tetuan, a city considered a capital of Sephardic or Andalusi Jews in Morocco following the fall of al-Andalus.[51][52]
Lithographic press
In 1864,
In the 1890s, Ahmad ibn Khalid an-Nasiri published the landmark al-Istiqsa, a multivolume history of Morocco with in-text citations including non-Islamic sources. It was the country's first comprehensive national history, covering the period from the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb to the reign of Sultan Abdelaziz.[55][56]
In the
Literature in resistance to colonialism
The Moroccan literary elite was influenced by the ideas of the Nahda cultural movement in the Mashriq. Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh's Islamic revolutionary journal Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa circulated in Morocco.[57] Muhammad Bin Abdul-Kabir al-Kattani, a poet, man of letters, and shaykh of the Kattaniyya[spelling?] Sufi order, employed the written word as an instrument of resistance to French presence in Morocco.[58][59] He supported the newspaper Lissan-ul-Maghreb and published at-Tā'ūn, both of which opposed the colonial French newspaper Es-Saada.[60][61]
Religious and political leader Mohamed Mustafa Ma al-'Aynayn wrote his Mubṣir al-mutashawwif ʻalá Muntakhab al-Taṣawwuf,[62][63] and his son Ahmed al-Hiba authored Sirāj aẓ-ẓulam fī mā yanfaʿu al-muʿallim wa'l-mutaʿallim.[64][65]
20th century
Three generations of writers especially shaped 20th-century Moroccan literature.
Colonial period
The Moroccan literary scene in the early 20th century was marked by exposure to literature from the wider Arab world and Europe, while also suffering from colonial censorship.[69] Abdellah Guennoun authored an-Nubūgh al-Maghribī fī al-adab al-ʻArabī on the history of Moroccan literature in three volumes[70] that was censored by the French authorities.[71] During this period, a great number of manuscripts were taken from Morocco or disappeared.[72]
Moroccan novel
Critics differ on when the Moroccan novel first emerged, due to the variety of novel-like texts that appeared in Morocco between 1924, the year of Ibn al-Muwaqqit's[73] ar-Rihla al-Murrakeshiya (الرحلة المراكشية The Marrakesh Journey), and 1967, the year of Mohammed Aziz Lahbabi's Jīl adh-Dhama' (جيل الظمأ Generation of Thirst).[74] Some[who?] identify the beginning as Abdelmajid Benjelloun's Fi at-Tufula (في الطفولة In Childhood) in 1957, while others point to Tuhami al-Wazzani's az-Zawiyya (الزاوية The Zawiya) in 1942.[74] The Moroccan novel in this foundational period conformed with traditional features of early 20th-century Arabic novels: a third-person omniscient narrator, a linear narrative and storyline, direct preaching and lesson-giving, and the author's own explanation of events and commentary on them.[74] Abdelkader Chatt's Mosaïques ternies, written in 1930 and first published in 1932, is considered the first francophone Moroccan novel.[75]
Literary production from the 1960s to 1990s
After Moroccan independence, a number of writers of Moroccan origin have become well-known abroad, including Tahar Ben Jelloun and others in France or Laila Lalami in the United States.
In 1966, a group of Moroccan writers such as
Moroccan works of fiction and non-fiction about the "Years of Lead" include Fatna El Bouih’s Talk of Darkness, Malika Oufkir and Michèle Fitoussi’s Stolen Lives: Twenty Years in a Desert Jail, Mohamed Raiss’s From Skhirat to Tazmamart: A Roundtrip Ticket to Hell, Ahmed Marzouki’s Tazmamart: Cell Number 10, Aziz Binebine’s Tazmamart – Eighteen Years in Morocco’s Secret Prison and Khadija Marouazi's History of Ash.[77]
English expatriate literature from Tangier
The city of Tangier,
Literary publishers
Since independence, Moroccan publishers have contributed to Moroccan literature by publishing and promoting works in French and Arabic, as well as later in
Even though international book fairs have been held in Tangiers and Casablanca for years, publishers such as Abdelkader Retnani (La Croisée des Chemins), Rachid Chraïbi (Editions Marsam) und Layla Chaouni have criticized insufficient support by the government. Moroccan literature has been supported by few subsidies, many bookshops have been closed and there is a lack of reliable statistics about the book market. - Despite the fact that several former Ministers of Culture, such as Mohammed Achaari and Bensalem Himmich, themselves have been writers.[84]
See also
- Culture of Morocco
- Music of Morocco
- Pallache family (rabbinical writings)
- Modern Arabic literature
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Further reading
- Otto Zwartjes, Ed de Moor, e.a. (ed.) Poetry, Politics and Polemics: Cultural Transfer Between the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa, Rodopi, 1996, ISBN 90-420-0105-4
- Monroe, J. T., Hispano-Arabic Poetry During the Almoravid Period: Theory and Practice, Viator 4, 1973, pp. 65–98
- Mohammed Hajji, Al-Haraka al-Fikriyya bi-li-Maghrib fi'Ahd al-Saiyyin (2 vols; al-Muhammadiya: Matbaat Fadala, 1976 and 1978)
- Najala al-Marini, Al-Sh'ar al-Maghribi fi 'asr al-Mansur al-Sa'di, Rabat: Nashurat Kuliat al-Adab wa al-Alum al-Insania, 1999 (Analysis of the work of the main poets of the age of Ahmed al-Mansour)
- Kapchan, Deborah. 2020. Poetic Justice: An Anthology of Moroccan Contemporary Poetry. University of Texas Press.
- Lakhdar, La vie littéraire au Maroc sous la dynastie alaouite, Rabat, 1971
- Jacques Berque, "La Littérature Marocaine Et L'Orient Au XVIIe Siècle", in: Arabica, Volume 2, Number 3, 1955, pp. 295–312
External links
- Nadia Ghanem, 180+ Books: A Look at Moroccan Literature Available in English; In arablit.org (2020)
- Poetry International Web, Morocco [3]
- Documentary video about a traditional storyteller in Marrakesh, in Moroccan Arabic with German and English subtitles
- Abdellatif Akbib, Birth and Development of the Moroccan Short Story, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Morocco
- Suellen Diaconoff, Women writers of Morocco writing in French, 2005 (Survey)
- The Postcolonial Web, National University of Singapore, The Literature of Morocco: An Overview [4]
- M.R. Menocal, R.P. Scheindlin and M. Sells (ed.) The Literature of Al-Andalus, Cambridge University Press (chapter 1), 2000 [5][permanent dead link]
- Said I. Abdelwahed, Troubadour Poetry: An Intercultural Experience [6]
- P. Martinez Montávez, Marruecos (Magrib Al-agsá) VI. Lengua y Literatura. Enciclopedia GER, (in Spanish)