Algeria

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Coordinates: 28°N 2°E / 28°N 2°E / 28; 2
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People's Democratic Republic of Algeria
  • الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية (
    Arabic
    )
    al-Jumhūriyatu l-Jazāʾiriyatu d-Dīmuqrāṭiyatu sh‑Shaʿbiyah
Motto: بِالشَّعْبِ و لِلشَّعْبِ
"Biš-šaʿb wa liš-šaʿb"
"By the people and for the people"[1][2]
Anthem: قَسَمًا
Qasaman
"We Pledge"
Location of Algeria (dark green)
Location of Algeria (dark green)
Capital
and largest city
Algiers
36°42′N 3°13′E / 36.700°N 3.217°E / 36.700; 3.217
Official languages
Local vernaculars
Foreign languages
Ethnic groups
(2024)[3]
Religion
(2012)[3]
Demonym(s)Algerian
GovernmentUnitary semi-presidential republic
• President
Abdelmadjid Tebboune
Nadir Larbaoui
Salah Goudjil
Ibrahim Boughali
LegislatureParliament
• Upper house
Council of the Nation
• Lower house
People's National Assembly
Formation
• Numidia
202 BC
1516
5 July 1830
5 July 1962
Area
• Total
2,381,741 km2 (919,595 sq mi) (10th)
• Water (%)
1.1
Population
• 2022 estimate
45,400,000[4] (32nd)
• Density
19/km2 (49.2/sq mi) (171th)
GDP (PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $628.990 billion[5] (43rd)
• Per capita
Increase $13,681[5] (111th)
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $224.107 billion[5] (58th)
• Per capita
Increase $4,874[5] (130th)
Gini (2011)27.6[6][7]
low
HDI (2022)Increase 0.745[8]
high (93rd)
CurrencyAlgerian dinar (DZD)
Time zoneUTC+1 (CET)
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy
Driving sideright
Calling code+213
ISO 3166 codeDZ
Internet TLD

Algeria,[c] officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria,[d] is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered to the northeast by Tunisia; to the east by Libya; to the southeast by Niger; to the southwest by Mali, Mauritania, and Western Sahara; to the west by Morocco; and to the north by the Mediterranean Sea. Algeria has a semi-arid climate, with the Sahara desert dominating most of the territory except for its fertile and mountainous north, where most of the population is concentrated. Spanning 2,381,741 square kilometres (919,595 sq mi), it is the world's tenth largest nation by area, and the largest nation in Africa.[9] With a population of 44 million, Algeria is the tenth-most populous country in Africa, and the 32nd-most populous country in the world. The capital and largest city is Algiers, located in the far north on the Mediterranean coast.

Inhabited since

mass European settlement that displaced the local population, which was reduced by up to one-third due to warfare, disease, and starvation.[11] The Sétif and Guelma massacre in 1945 catalysed local resistance that culminated in the outbreak of the Algerian War in 1954. Algeria gained its independence on 5 July 1962 and declared the People's Democratic Republic on 25 September of that year. The country descended into a bloody civil war
from 1991 to 2002.

Algeria's official languages are Arabic and Tamazight; French is used in media, education, and certain administrative matters. The vast majority of the population speak the Algerian dialect of Arabic. Most Algerians are Arabs, with Berbers forming a sizeable minority. Sunni Islam is the official religion and practised by 99 percent of the population.[12]

Algeria is a

Algerian military is one of the largest in Africa, with the highest defence budget on the continent and among the highest in the world. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, the OIC, OPEC, the United Nations, and the Arab Maghreb Union
, of which it is a founding member.

Name

Page of typeset book
"Algeria" page in the Civitates Orbis Terrarium of 1575

Other forms of the name are:

Arabic: الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية, romanized: al-Jumhūriyah al-Jazāʾiriyah ad-Dīmuqrāṭiyah ash‑Shaʿbiyah; French: République algérienne démocratique et populaire, abbreviated as RADP).[nb 1]

Etymology

Algeria's name derives from the city of Algiers, which in turn derives from the Arabic al-Jazāʾir (الجزائر, "the islands"), referring to four small islands off its coast,[15] a truncated form of the older Jazāʾir Banī Mazghanna (جزائر بني مزغنة, "islands of Bani Mazghanna").[16][17][page needed][18][page needed] The name was given by Buluggin ibn Ziri after he established the city on the ruins of the Phoenician city of Icosium in 950.[19] It was employed by medieval geographers such as Muhammad al-Idrisi and Yaqut al-Hamawi.

Algeria took its name from the Regency of Algeria[20][21][22] or Regency of Algiers,[23] when Ottoman rule was established in the central Maghreb in early 16th century. This period saw the installation of a political and administrative organization which participated in the establishment of the Algerian: وطن الجزائر (watan el djazâïr, country of Algiers) and the definition of its borders with its neighboring entities on the east and west.[24] The Ottoman Turks who setteled in Algeria referred both to themselves,[25][20][26][27] and the peoples as "Algerians".[20] Acting as a central military and political authority in the regency, the Ottoman Turks shaped the modern political identity of Algeria as a state pocessing all the attributes of sovereign independence, despite still being nominally subject to the Ottoman sultan.[28][29] Algerian nationalist, historian and statesman Ahmed Tewfik El Madani regarded the regency as the "first Algerian state" and the "Algerian Ottoman republic".[26][30][31]

History

Main article: History of Algeria

Prehistory and ancient history

Main articles:
North Africa during Antiquity
Roman ruins at Djémila

Around ~1.8-million-year-old stone artifacts from Ain Hanech (Algeria) were considered to represent the oldest archaeological materials in North Africa.[32] Stone artifacts and cut-marked bones that were excavated from two nearby deposits at Ain Boucherit are estimated to be ~1.9 million years old, and even older stone artifacts to be as old as ~2.4 million years.[32] Hence, the Ain Boucherit evidence shows that ancestral hominins inhabited the Mediterranean fringe in northern Africa much earlier than previously thought. The evidence strongly argues for early dispersal of stone tool manufacture and use from East Africa, or a possible multiple-origin scenario of stone technology in both East and North Africa.

Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles (43,000 BC) similar to those in the Levant.[33][34] Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques.[35] Tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called Aterian (after the archaeological site of Bir el Ater, south of Tebessa).

The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called

Berbers, who are the indigenous peoples of northern Africa.[37]

Ancient Roman ruins of Timgad on the street leading to the local Arch of Trajan

From their principal center of power at

Rusicade (modern Skikda
). These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages.

As Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilisation was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organisation supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others.

Masinissa (c. 238–148 BC), first king of Numidia

By the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War.[38] They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars.[39]

In 146 BC the city of

Almoravids more than a millennium later, was reached during the reign of Masinissa
in the 2nd century BC.

Justinian the Great, at its greatest extent since the fall of the Western Roman Empire (vassals
in pink))

After Masinissa's death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times. Masinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to the Roman Empire.

Roman inscription from Agueneb in the province of Laghouat

For several centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the region, Algeria is the second country in the world after Italy, home to the largest number of Roman sites and remains among the most alive and well preserved. Rome, after getting rid of its powerful rival Carthage in the year 146 BC, decided a century later to include Numidia to become the new master of North Africa. They built more than 500 cities.

Amazigh political, military and cultural revival.[41][42] Furthermore, during the rule of the Romans, Byzantines, Vandals, Carthaginians, and Ottomans the Berber people were the only or one of the few in North Africa who remained independent.[43][44][45][46] The Berber people were so resistant that even during the Muslim conquest of North Africa they still had control and possession over their mountains.[47][48]

The collapse of the Western Roman Empire led to the establishment of a native Kingdom based in Altava (modern-day Algeria) known as the Mauro-Roman Kingdom. It was succeeded by another Kingdom based in Altava, the Kingdom of Altava. During the reign of Kusaila its territory extended from the region of modern-day Fez in the west to the western Aurès and later Kairaouan and the interior of Ifriqiya in the east.[49][50][51][52][53][54]

Middle Ages

Main article: Medieval Muslim Algeria

After negligible resistance from the locals, Muslim Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Algeria in the early 8th century.

Large numbers of the indigenous Berber people converted to Islam. Christians, Berber and Latin speakers remained in the great majority in Tunisia until the end of the 9th century and Muslims only became a vast majority some time in the 10th.

Zayyanids. The Christians left in three waves: after the initial conquest, in the 10th century and the 11th. The last were evacuated to Sicily by the Normans and the few remaining died out in the 14th century.[55]

Fatimid Caliphate, a Shia Ismaili dynasty that ruled much of North Africa, c. 960–1100
Dihya memorial in Khenchela
, Algeria

During the

Amazigh tribes, however, remained largely independent, and depending on tribe, location and time controlled varying parts of the Maghreb, at times unifying it (as under the Fatimids). The Fatimid Islamic state, also known as Fatimid Caliphate made an Islamic empire that included North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Tihamah, Hejaz and Yemen.[56][57][58]
Caliphates from Northern Africa traded with the other empires of their time, as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other Islamic states during the Islamic Era.

The

Berghwata). All these tribes made independent territorial decisions.[59]

Several

Fatimids established their rule in all of the Maghreb countries. The Zirids ruled land in what is now Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Libya, Spain, Malta and Italy. The Hammadids captured and held important regions such as Ouargla, Constantine, Sfax, Susa, Algiers, Tripoli and Fez establishing their rule in every country in the Maghreb region.[61][62][63] The Fatimids which was created and established by the Kutama Berbers[64][65]
conquered all of North Africa as well as Sicily and parts of the Middle East.

Maghrawa

Following the Berber revolt numerous independent states emerged across the Maghreb. In Algeria the Rustamid Kingdom was established. The Rustamid realm stretched from Tafilalt in Morocco to the Nafusa mountains in Libya including south, central and western Tunisia therefore including territory in all of the modern day Maghreb countries, in the south the Rustamid realm expanded to the modern borders of Mali and included territory in Mauritania.[66][67][68]

Once extending their control over all of the Maghreb, part of Spain

Zirids only controlled modern Ifriqiya by the 11th century. The Zirids recognized nominal suzerainty of the Fatimid caliphs of Cairo. El Mu'izz the Zirid ruler decided to end this recognition and declared his independence.[71][72] The Zirids also fought against other Zenata Kingdoms, for example the Maghrawa, a Berber dynasty originating from Algeria and which at one point was a dominant power in the Maghreb ruling over much of Morocco and western Algeria including Fez, Sijilmasa, Aghmat, Oujda, most of the Sous and Draa and reaching as far as M'sila and the Zab in Algeria.[73][74][75][76]

As the Fatimid state was at the time too weak to attempt a direct invasion, they found another means of revenge. Between the

Nile Valley since the nomads would often loot their farms. The then Fatimid vizier decided to destroy what he could not control, and broke a deal with the chiefs of these Beduouin tribes.[77]
The Fatimids even gave them money to leave.

Whole tribes set off with women, children, elders, animals and camping equipment. Some stopped on the way, especially in

Zirid ruler tried to stop this rising tide, but with each encounter, the last under the walls of Kairouan, his troops were defeated and the Arabs remained masters of the battlefield. The Arabs usually did not take control over the cities, instead looting them and destroying them.[72]

Mansourah Mosque, Tlemcen

The invasion kept going, and in 1057 the Arabs spread on the high plains of

Almohads in the second half of the 12th century. The influx of Bedouin tribes was a major factor in the linguistic, cultural Arabization of the Maghreb and in the spread of nomadism in areas where agriculture had previously been dominant.[79] Ibn Khaldun noted that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal tribes had become completely arid desert.[80]

The Almohads originating from modern day Morocco, although founded by a man originating from modern day Algeria[81] known as Abd al-Mu'min would soon take control over the Maghreb. During the time of the Almohad Dynasty Abd al-Mu'min's tribe, the Koumïa, were the main supporters of the throne and the most important body of the empire.[82] Defeating the weakening Almoravid Empire and taking control over Morocco in 1147,[83] they pushed into Algeria in 1152, taking control over Tlemcen, Oran, and Algiers,[84] wrestling control from the Hilian Arabs, and by the same year they defeated Hammadids who controlled Eastern Algeria.[84]

Following their decisive defeat in the

Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyan declared his independence and established the Kingdom of Tlemcen and the Zayyanid dynasty. Warring with the Almohad forces attempting to restore control over Algeria for 13 years, they defeated the Almohads in 1248 after killing their Caliph in a successful ambush near Oujda.[85]

The Zayyanid kingdom of Tlemcen in the fifteenth century and its neighbors

The Zayyanids retained their control over Algeria for 3 centuries. Much of the eastern territories of Algeria were under the authority of the

Emirate of Bejaia encompassing the Algerian territories of the Hafsids would occasionally be independent from central Tunisian control. At their peak the Zayyanid kingdom included all of Morocco as its vassal to the west and in the east reached as far as Tunis which they captured during the reign of Abu Tashfin.[87][88][89][90][91][92]

After several conflicts with local

in a large siege,[96] and leading a semi-successful siege against Algiers. They also besieged Tlemcen. In 1511, they took control over Cherchell[97] and Jijel, and attacked Mostaganem
where although they were not able to conquer the city, they were able to force a tribute on them.

Early modern era

Main article: Regency of Algiers
Hayreddin Barbarossa

In 1516, the Turkish privateer brothers

janissaries. With the aid of this force and native Algerians, Hayreddin conquered the whole area between Constantine and Oran (although the city of Oran remained in Spanish hands until 1792).[98][99]

The next beylerbey was Hayreddin's son

agha. Discontent among the ojaq rose in the mid-1600s because they were not paid regularly, and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha. As a result, the agha charged the pasha with corruption and incompetence and seized power in 1659.[98]

Plague had repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost between 30,000 and 50,000 inhabitants to the plague in 1620–21, and had high fatalities in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42.[101]

Map of the Regency of Algiers in early 19th century

The

Turgut Reis, enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo. Barbary pirates often attacked the Balearic Islands. The threat was so severe that residents abandoned the island of Formentera.[106] The introduction of broad-sail ships from the beginning of the 17th century allowed them to branch out into the Atlantic.[107]

In July 1627 two pirate ships from Algiers under the command of

Morocco had also raided in Iceland. Some of the slaves brought to Algiers were later ransomed back to Iceland, but some chose to stay in Algeria. In 1629, pirate ships from Algeria raided the Faroe Islands.[112]

Baba Ali Chaouch, Dey of Algiers
Algiers, by Niels Simonsen

In 1659, the Janissaries stationned in Algiers, also known commonly as the Odjak of Algiers; and the Reis or the company of corsair captains rebelled, they removed the Ottoman viceroy from power, and placed one of its own in power. The new leader received the title of "Agha" then "Dey" in 1671, and the right to select passed to the divan, a council of some sixty military senior officers. Thus Algiers became a sovereign military republic. It was at first dominated by the odjak; but by the 18th century, it had become the dey's instrument. Although Algiers remained nominally part of the Ottoman Empire,[98] in reality they acted independently from the rest of the Empire,[113][114] and often had wars with other Ottoman subjects and territories such as the Beylik of Tunis.[115]

The

Kabylia,[98] although in 1730 the Regency was able to take control over the Kingdom of Kuku in western Kabylia.[116] Many cities in the northern parts of the Algerian desert paid taxes to Algiers or one of its Beys.[117]

Barbary raids in the Mediterranean continued to attack Spanish merchant shipping, and as a result, the Spanish Empire launched an invasion in 1775, then the Spanish Navy bombarded Algiers in 1783 and 1784.[99] For the attack in 1784, the Spanish fleet was to be joined by ships from such traditional enemies of Algiers as Naples, Portugal and the Knights of Malta. Over 20,000 cannonballs were fired, but all these military campaigns were doomed and Spain had to ask for peace in 1786 and paid 1 million pesos to the Dey.

In 1792, Algiers took back Oran and Mers el Kébir, the two last Spanish strongholds in Algeria.[118] In the same year, they conquered the Moroccan Rif and Oujda, which they then abandoned in 1795.[119]

Bombardment of Algiers by the Anglo-Dutch fleet, to support the ultimatum to release European slaves, August 1816

In the 19th century, Algerian pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a "license tax" in exchange for safe harbor of their vessels.[120]

Attacks by Algerian pirates on American merchantmen resulted in the First and Second Barbary Wars, which ended the attacks on U.S. ships in 1815. A year later, a combined Anglo-Dutch fleet, under the command of Lord Exmouth bombarded Algiers to stop similar attacks on European fishermen. These efforts proved successful, although Algerian piracy would continue until the French conquest in 1830.[121]

French colonization (1830–1962)

Main articles: French Algeria and Algerian War
See also: French North Africa
Battle of Somah in 1836

Under the pretext of a slight to their consul, the

captured Algiers in 1830.[122][123] According to several historians, the methods used by the French to establish control over Algeria reached genocidal proportions.[124][125][126] Historian Ben Kiernan wrote on the French conquest of Algeria: "By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830."[127] French losses from 1831 to 1851 were 92,329 dead in the hospital and only 3,336 killed in action.[128][129] In 1872, The Algerian population stood at about 2.9 million.[130][unreliable source?] French policy was predicated on "civilising" the country.[131] The slave trade and piracy in Algeria ceased following the French conquest.[102] The conquest of Algeria by the French took some time and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the indigenous Algerian population to decline by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872.[132][133][unreliable source?] On 17 September 1860, Napoleon III declared "Our first duty is to take care of the happiness of the three million Arabs, whom the fate of arms has brought under our domination."[134] During this time, only Kabylia resisted, the Kabylians were not colonized until after the Mokrani Revolt in 1871.[citation needed
]

Alexis de Tocqueville wrote and never completed an unpublished essay outlining his ideas for how to transform Algeria from an occupied tributary state to a colonial regime, wherein he advocated for a mixed system of "total domination and total colonization" whereby French military would wage total war against civilian populations while a colonial administration would provide rule of law and property rights to settlers within French occupied cities.[135]

Emir Abdelkader
, Algerian leader insurgent against French colonial rule, 1865

From 1848 until independence, France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as an integral part and département of the nation. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of

Pied-Noirs. Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people emigrated to Algeria.[136][137] These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land.[138] Many Europeans settled in Oran and Algiers, and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both cities.[139]

Larbi Ben M'Hidi
.

During the late 19th and early 20th century, the European share was almost a fifth of the population. The French government aimed at making Algeria an assimilated part of France, and this included substantial educational investments especially after 1900. The indigenous cultural and religious resistance heavily opposed this tendency, but in contrast to the other colonized countries' path in central Asia and Caucasus, Algeria kept its individual skills and a relatively human-capital intensive agriculture.[140]

During the

Second World War, Algeria came under Vichy control before being liberated by the Allies in Operation Torch, which saw the first large-scale deployment of American troops in the North African campaign.[141]

Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status under the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy and eventually independence from

severe reprisals. In addition, the French destroyed over 8,000 villages[143] and relocated over 2 million Algerians to concentration camps.[144]

The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands of injuries. Historians, like Alistair Horne and Raymond Aron, state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war dead was far greater than the original FLN and official French estimates but was less than the 1 million deaths claimed by the Algerian government after independence. Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 700,000.[145] The war uprooted more than 2 million Algerians.[146]

The war against French rule concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962

self-determination referendum
.

The first three decades of independence (1962–1991)

Main article:
History of Algeria (1962–99)

The number of European

Pied-Noirs who fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000 between 1962 and 1964.[147] The exodus to mainland France accelerated after the Oran massacre of 1962
, in which hundreds of militants entered European sections of the city and began attacking civilians.

Houari Boumediene

Algeria's first president was the Front de Libération Nationale (

FLN) leader Ahmed Ben Bella. Morocco's claim to portions of western Algeria led to the Sand War in 1963. Ben Bella was overthrown in 1965 by Houari Boumédiène, his former ally and defence minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had become increasingly socialist and authoritarian; Boumédienne continued this trend. However, he relied much more on the army for his support, and reduced the sole legal party to a symbolic role. He collectivised agriculture and launched a massive industrialisation drive. Oil extraction facilities were nationalised. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the international 1973 oil crisis
.

Boumédienne's successor,

Arabisation in Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from other Muslim countries, spread conventional Islamic thought in schools and sowed the seeds of a return to Orthodox Islam.[148]

The Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, leading to hardship when the price collapsed during the 1980s oil glut.[149] Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during the 1980s; by the end of the decade, Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system. Political parties developed, such as the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), a broad coalition of Muslim groups.[148]

Civil War (1991–2002) and aftermath

Main article: Algerian Civil War
Armed Islamic Group (GIA)
claimed responsibility for many of them.

In December 1991 the

legislative elections. Fearing the election of an Islamist government, the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancelling the elections. Bendjedid resigned and a High Council of State was installed to act as the Presidency. It banned the FIS, triggering a civil insurgency between the Front's armed wing, the Armed Islamic Group, and the national armed forces, in which more than 100,000 people are thought to have died. The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of civilian massacres.[150][failed verification] At several points in the conflict, the situation in Algeria became a point of international concern, most notably during the crisis surrounding Air France Flight 8969, a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a ceasefire in October 1997.[148]

Algeria held

Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat (GSPC), a splinter group of the Armed Islamic Group, continued a terrorist campaign against the Government.[148]

Bouteflika was re-elected in the

referendum in September 2005. It offered amnesty to most guerrillas and Government security forces.[148]

In November 2008, the

2009 presidential elections, and he was re-elected in April 2009. During his election campaign and following his re-election, Bouteflika promised to extend the programme of national reconciliation and a $150-billion spending programme to create three million new jobs, the construction of one million new housing units, and to continue public sector and infrastructure modernisation programmes.[148]

A continuing series of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by similar protests across the Middle East and North Africa. On 24 February 2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old state of emergency.[152] The government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral code, and the representation of women in elected bodies.[153] In April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform.[148] However, elections are routinely criticised by opposition groups as unfair and international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue.

On 2 April 2019, Bouteflika resigned from the presidency after

mass protests against his candidacy for a fifth term in office.[154]

In December 2019, Abdelmadjid Tebboune became Algeria's president, after winning the first round of the presidential election with a record abstention rate – the highest of all presidential elections since Algeria's democracy in 1989. Tebboune is accused of being close to the military and being loyal to the deposed president. Tebboune rejects these accusations, claiming to be the victim of a witch hunt. He also reminds his detractors that he was expelled from the Government in August 2017 at the instigation of oligarchs languishing in prison.[155]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Algeria
The Sahara, the Hoggar Mountains and the Atlas Mountains compose the Algerian relief.
The Algerian Desert makes up more than 90% of the country's total area.[156]

Since the 2011 breakup of Sudan, and the creation of South Sudan, Algeria has been the largest country in Africa, and the

Aures and Nememcha occupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The highest point is Mount Tahat
(3,003 metres or 9,852 feet).

Algeria lies mostly between latitudes

harbours. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a steppe landscape ending with the Saharan Atlas; farther south, there is the Sahara desert.[157]

The

Tamanghasset. Algiers, Oran, Constantine, and Annaba are Algeria's main cities.[157]

The Babor mountains and the Jijel Coast. The Erraguene lake can be seen on the right.

Climate and hydrology

Main article:
Climate of Algeria
Algeria map of Köppen climate classification.

In this region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded.

Rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from 400 to 670 mm (15.7 to 26.4 in) annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east.

Precipitation
is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in some years.

Farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Algeria also has ergs, or sand dunes, between mountains. Among these, in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can go up to 43.3 °C (110 °F).

water resource access challenges are expected to get worse.[158] As early as 2014, scientists were attributing extreme heat waves to climate change in Algeria.[158] Algeria was ranked 46th of countries in the 2020 Climate Change Performance Index.[160]

Fauna and flora

Main article: Wildlife of Algeria
national animal
of Algeria

The varied vegetation of Algeria includes

national animal of Algeria.[161]

A variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackals.

semi arid regions of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct, including the Barbary lions, Atlas bears and crocodiles.[162]

In the north, some of the native flora includes

grape vine is indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm trees. Acacias with wild olives are the predominant flora in the remainder of the Sahara. Algeria had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.22/10, ranking it 106th globally out of 172 countries.[163]

Camels are used extensively; the desert also abounds with venomous and nonvenomous snakes, scorpions, and numerous insects.

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Algeria
Abdelmadjid Tebboune, President of Algeria since 2019

Elected politicians have relatively little sway over Algeria. Instead, a group of unelected civilian and military "décideurs" ("deciders"), known as "le pouvoir" ("the power"), actually rule the country, even deciding who should be president.

protests.[167]

The head of state is the

Council of Ministers and the High Security Council. He appoints the Prime Minister who is also the head of government.[170]

The People's National Assembly

The Algerian parliament is

bicameral; the lower house, the People's National Assembly, has 462 members who are directly elected for five-year terms, while the upper house, the Council of the Nation, has 144 members serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president.[171] According to the constitution, no political association may be formed if it is "based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, profession, or region". In addition, political campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects.[172]

Parliamentary elections were last held in

National Rally for Democracy won 100, and the Muslim Brotherhood-linked Movement of the Society for Peace won 33.[173]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Algeria
Dmitriy Medvedev, left, and Yasuo Fukuda
, right.

Algeria is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI) that came into force in 2014. It has a budget of €15.4 billion and provides the bulk of funding through a number of programmes.

In 2009, the French government agreed to compensate victims of nuclear tests in Algeria. Defence Minister Herve Morin stated that "It's time for our country to be at peace with itself, at peace thanks to a system of compensation and reparations," when presenting the draft law on the payouts. Algerian officials and activists believe that this is a good first step and hope that this move would encourage broader reparation.[174]

Tensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation to the Western Sahara have been an obstacle to tightening the Arab Maghreb Union, nominally established in 1989, but which has carried little practical weight.[175] On 24 August 2021, Algeria announced the break of diplomatic relations with Morocco.[176]

Military

Main article:
Military of Algeria
A Djebel Chenoua-class corvette, designed and assembled in Algeria

The military of Algeria consists of the

People's National Army (ANP), the Algerian National Navy (MRA), and the Algerian Air Force (QJJ), plus the Territorial Air Defence Forces.[12] It is the direct successor of the National Liberation Army (Armée de Libération Nationale or ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front which fought French colonial occupation
during the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62).

Total military personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff (2008 estimate).[177] Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 12 months.[178] The military expenditure was 4.3% of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012.[12] Algeria has the second largest military in North Africa with the largest defence budget in Africa ($10 billion).[179] Most of Algeria's weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they are a close ally.[179][180]

In 2007, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49

submarines for Algeria.[181]

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Algeria

Algeria has been categorised by the US government funded

media freedom in Algeria. It clarified that the Algerian government imposed restrictions on freedom of the press; expression; and right to peaceful demonstration, protest and assembly as well as intensified censorship of the media and websites. Due to the fact that the journalists and activists criticise the ruling government, some media organisations' licenses are cancelled.[183]

Independent and autonomous trade unions face routine harassment from the government, with many leaders imprisoned and protests suppressed. In 2016, a number of unions, many of which were involved in the 2010–2012 Algerian Protests, have been deregistered by the government.[184][185][186]

Homosexuality is illegal in Algeria.[187] Public homosexual behavior is punishable by up to two years in prison.[188] Despite this, about 26% of Algerians think that homosexuality should be accepted, according to the survey conducted by the BBC News Arabic-Arab Barometer in 2019. Algeria showed largest LGBT acceptance compared to other Arab countries where the survey was conducted.[189]

Human Rights Watch has accused the Algerian authorities of using the COVID-19 pandemic as an excuse to prevent pro-democracy movements and protests in the country, leading to the arrest of youths as part of social distancing.[190]

Administrative divisions

Main articles:
Municipalities of Algeria

Algeria is divided into 58

municipalities (baladiyahs). Each province, district, and municipality is named after its seat
, which is usually the largest city.

The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are:[12]

# Wilaya Area (km2) Population map # Wilaya Area (km2) Population
1 Adrar 402,197 439,700
30 Ouargla 211,980 552,539
2 Chlef 4,975 1,013,718 31 Oran 2,114 1,584,607
3 Laghouat 25,057 477,328 32 El Bayadh 78,870 262,187
4 Oum El Bouaghi 6,768 644,364 33 Illizi 285,000 54,490
5 Batna 12,192 1,128,030 34 Bordj Bou Arréridj 4,115 634,396
6 Béjaïa 3,268 915,835 35 Boumerdes 1,591 795,019
7 Biskra 20,986 730,262 36 El Taref 3,339 411,783
8 Béchar 161,400 274,866 37 Tindouf 58,193 159,000
9 Blida 1,696 1,009,892 38 Tissemsilt 3,152 296,366
10 Bouïra 4,439 694,750 39 El Oued 54,573 673,934
11 Tamanrasset 556,200 198,691 40 Khenchela 9,811 384,268
12 Tébessa 14,227 657,227 41 Souk Ahras 4,541 440,299
13 Tlemcen 9,061 945,525 42 Tipaza 2,166 617,661
14 Tiaret 20,673 842,060 43 Mila 9,375 768,419
15 Tizi Ouzou 3,568 1,119,646 44 Ain Defla 4,897 771,890
16 Algiers 273 2,947,461 45 Naâma 29,950 209,470
17 Djelfa 66,415 1,223,223 46 Ain Timouchent 2,376 384,565
18 Jijel 2,577 634,412 47 Ghardaia 86,105 375,988
19 Sétif 6,504 1,496,150 48 Relizane 4,870 733,060
20 Saïda 6,764 328,685 49 El M'Ghair 8,835 162,267
21 Skikda 4,026 904,195 50 El Menia 62,215 57,276
22 Sidi Bel Abbès 9,150 603,369 51 Ouled Djellal 11,410 174,219
23 Annaba 1,439 640,050 52 Bordj Baji Mokhtar 120,026 16,437
24 Guelma 4,101 482,261 53 Béni Abbès 101,350 50,163
25 Constantine 2,187 943,112 54 Timimoun 65,203 122,019
26 Médéa 8,866 830,943 55 Touggourt 17,428 247,221
27 Mostaganem 2,269 746,947 56 Djanet 86,185 17,618
28 M'Sila 18,718 991,846 57 In Salah 131,220 50,392
29 Mascara 5,941 780,959 58 In Guezzam 88,126 11,202

Economy

Main article: Economy of Algeria
GDP per capita development in Algeria

Algeria's currency is the dinar (DZD). The economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model. In recent years, the Algerian government has halted the privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy.[12] These restrictions are just starting to be lifted off recently although questions about Algeria's slowly-diversifying economy remain.[citation needed]

Algeria has struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages.[12] The country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term problems, including the need to diversify the economy, strengthen political, economic and financial reforms, improve the business climate and reduce inequalities among regions.[153]

A wave of economic protests in February and March 2011 prompted the Algerian government to offer more than $23 billion in public grants and retroactive salary and benefit increases. Public spending has increased by 27% annually during the past five years. The 2010–14 public-investment programme will cost US$286 billion, 40% of which will go to human development.[153]

Thanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues, Algeria has a cushion of $173 billion in

foreign currency reserves and a large hydrocarbon stabilisation fund. In addition, Algeria's external debt is extremely low at about 2% of GDP.[12] The economy remains very dependent on hydrocarbon wealth, and, despite high foreign exchange reserves (US$178 billion, equivalent to three years of imports), current expenditure growth makes Algeria's budget more vulnerable to the risk of prolonged lower hydrocarbon revenues.[192]

Algeria has not joined the

Greater Arab Free Trade Area[193] and the African Continental Free Trade Area,[194] and has an association agreement with the European Union[195][196]

Turkish direct investments have accelerated in Algeria, with total value reaching $5 billion. As of 2022, the number of Turkish companies present in Algeria has reached 1,400. In 2020, despite the pandemic, more than 130 Turkish companies were created in Algeria.[197]

Oil and natural resources

See also: Mining industry of Algeria
Pipelines across Algeria

Algeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an

natural gas reserves.[200] It also ranks 16th in oil reserves.[12]

Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position.[192]

Income from oil and gas rose in 2011 as a result of continuing high oil prices, though the trend in production volume is downward.[153] Production from the oil and gas sector in terms of volume continues to decline, dropping from 43.2 million tonnes to 32 million tonnes between 2007 and 2011. Nevertheless, the sector accounted for 98% of the total volume of exports in 2011, against 48% in 1962,[201] and 70% of budgetary receipts, or US$71.4 billion.[153]

The Algerian national oil company is Sonatrach, which plays a key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in Algeria. All foreign operators must work in partnership with Sonatrach, which usually has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements.[202]

Access to biocapacity in Algeria is lower than world average. In 2016, Algeria had 0.53 global hectares[203] of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.[204] In 2016, Algeria used 2.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person – their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use just under 4.5 times as much biocapacity as Algeria contains. As a result, Algeria is running a biocapacity deficit.[203] In April 2022, diplomats from Italy and Spain held talks after Rome's move to secure large volume of Algerian gas stoked concerns in Madrid.[205] Under the deal between Algeria's Sonatrach and Italy's Eni, Algeria will send an additional 9 billion cubic metres of gas to Italy by next year and in 2024.[206]

Research and alternative energy sources

Algeria has invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards developing research facilities and paying researchers. This development program is meant to advance alternative energy production, especially solar and wind power.[207] Algeria is estimated to have the largest solar energy potential in the Mediterranean, so the government has funded the creation of a solar science park in Hassi R'Mel. Currently, Algeria has 20,000 research professors at various universities and over 780 research labs, with state-set goals to expand to 1,000. Besides solar energy, areas of research in Algeria include space and satellite telecommunications, nuclear power and medical research.

Labour market

The overall rate of unemployment was 10% in 2011, but remained higher among young people, with a rate of 21.5% for those aged between 15 and 24. The government strengthened in 2011 the job programs introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the program to aid those seeking work (Dispositif d'Aide à l'Insertion Professionnelle).[153]

Despite a decline in total unemployment, youth and women unemployment is high.[192]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Algeria
Djanet

The development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built.

There are several

Casbah of Algiers, an important citadel. The only natural World Heritage Site is the Tassili n'Ajjer
, a mountain range.

Transport

Main article: Transport in Algeria
The main highway connecting the Moroccan to the Tunisian border was a part of the Cairo–Dakar Highway project

Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Algeria:

  • Cairo-Dakar Highway
  • Algiers-Lagos Highway

The Algerian road network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at 180,000 km (110,000 mi) of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by the

East-West Highway, a major infrastructure project currently under construction. It is a three-way, 1,216-kilometre-long (756 mi) highway, linking Annaba in the extreme east to the Tlemcen in the far west. Algeria is also crossed by the Trans-Sahara Highway, which is now completely paved. This road is supported by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, and Tunisia
.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Algeria
See also: List of cities in Algeria

Algeria has a population of an estimated 44 million, of which the majority, 75%[209] to 85% are ethnically Arab.[12][210][211] At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately four million.[212] About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in oases, although some 1.5 million remain nomadic or partly nomadic. 28.1% of Algerians are under the age of 15.[12]

Between 90,000 and 165,000

Palestinian refugees, who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).[213][214] In 2009, 35,000 Chinese migrant workers lived in Algeria.[216]

The largest concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has reportedly over 1.7 million Algerians of up to the second generation.[217]

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Algeria
According to the 2008 Census[218]
Rank Name Province Municipal pop. Rank Name Province Municipal pop.
Algiers
Algiers
Oran
Oran 		1 Algiers Algiers Province 2,364,230 11 Tébessa Tébessa Province 194,461 Constantine
Constantine
Annaba
Annaba
2 Oran Oran Province 803,329 12 El Oued El Oued Province 186,525
3 Constantine Constantine Province 448,028 13 Skikda Skikda Province 182,903
4 Annaba Annaba Province 342,703 14 Tiaret Tiaret Province 178,915
5 Blida Blida Province 331,779 15 Béjaïa Béjaïa Province 176,139
6
Batna
 Batna Province 289,504 16 Tlemcen Tlemcen Province 173,531
7 Djelfa Djelfa Province 265,833 17 Ouargla Ouargla Province 169,928
8 Sétif Sétif Province 252,127 18 Béchar Béchar Province 165,241
9 Sidi Bel Abbès Sidi Bel Abbès Province 210,146 19 Mostaganem Mostaganem Province 162,885
10 Biskra Biskra Province 204,661 20 Bordj Bou Arréridj Bordj Bou Arréridj Province 158,812

Ethnic groups

Main article: Ethnic groups in Algeria
Some of Algeria's traditional clothes

Morisco descendants in the small town of Grish El-Oued.[221]

Centuries of

Kabylie region east of Algiers, the Chaoui of Northeast Algeria, the Tuaregs in the southern desert and the Shenwa people of North Algeria.[223][page needed
]

During the colonial period, there was a large (10% in 1960)

Pied-Noirs. They were primarily of French, Spanish and Italian origin. Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or immediately after its end.[225]

Languages

Main article:
Berber are the official languages.[226] Algerian Arabic (Darja) is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian Arabic has some Berber loanwords which represent 8% to 9% of its vocabulary.[227]

Signs in the University of Tizi Ouzou in three languages: Arabic, Berber
, and French

Kabylie. Kabyle has a significant Arabic, French, Latin, Greek, Phoenician and Punic substratum, and Arabic loanwords represent 35% of the total Kabyle vocabulary.[229] In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that made Berber an official language alongside Arabic. Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after 1962.[230] Colloquial Algerian Arabic is spoken by about 83% of the population and Berber by 27%.[231]

Although French has no official status in Algeria, it has one of the largest Francophone populations in the world,

Algeria's colonial history. It can be regarded as a lingua franca of Algeria. In 2008, 11.2 million Algerians could read and write in French.[233] In 2013, it was estimated that 60% of the population could speak or understand French.[234] In 2022, it was estimated that 33% of the population was Francophone.[235]

The use of

English in Algeria, though limited in comparison to the previously mentioned languages, has increased due to globalization.[236][237] In 2022 it was announced that English would be taught in elementary schools.[238]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Algeria
See also:
Early African Church, and History of the Jews in Algeria
Hassan Pasha Mosque in Oran

Ghardaia
.

Prior to independence, Algeria was home to more than 1.3 million Christians (mostly of

Protestant groups, which have seen increased pressure from the government in recent years including many forced closures.[243]

According to the Arab Barometer in 2018–2019, the vast majority of Algerians (99.1%) continue to identify as Muslim.[244] The June 2019 Arab Barometer-BBC News report found that the percentage of Algerians identifying as non-religious has grown from around 8% in 2013 to around 15% in 2018.[245] The Arab Barometer December 2019, found that the growth in the percentage of Algerians identifying as non-religious is largely driven by young Algerians, with roughly 25% describing themselves as non-religious.[246] However, the 2021 Arab Barometer report found that those who said they were not religious among Algerians has decreased, with just 2.6% identifying as non-religious. In that same report, 69.5% of Algerians identified as religious and another 27.8% identifying as somewhat religious.[244][247]

Algeria has given the

Mohamed Arkoun
.

Health

Main article: Health in Algeria

In 2018, Algeria had the highest numbers of physicians in the Maghreb region (1.72 per 1,000 people), nurses (2.23 per 1,000 people), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 people). Access to "improved water sources" was around 97.4% of the population in urban areas and 98.7% of the population in the rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban areas, and around 93.4% of those living in rural areas, had access to "improved sanitation". According to the World Bank, Algeria is making progress toward its goal of "reducing by half the number of people without sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015". Given Algeria's young population, policy favours preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunisation program. However, poor sanitation and unclean water still cause tuberculosis, hepatitis, measles, typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery. The poor generally receive healthcare free of charge.[248]

Health records have been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the south to their vital record database in 1905 during French rule.[249]

Education

Main articles: Education in Algeria and List of universities in Algeria
UIS literacy rate Algeria population plus 15 1985–2015

Since the 1970s, in a centralised system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence, now the literacy rate is around 92.6%.[250] Since 1972, Arabic is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of schooling. From the third year, French is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English, Italian, Spanish and German. In 2008, new programs at the elementary appeared, therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the age of five.[251] Apart from the 122 private schools, the Universities of the State are free of charge. After nine years of primary school, students can go to a high school or to an educational institution. The school offers two programs: general or technical. At the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the baccalaureate, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes.[252]

Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008, the illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22.3%, 15.6% for men and 29.0% for women. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was Algiers Province at 11.6%, while the province with the highest rate was Djelfa Province at 35.5%.[253]

Algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. The

University of Algiers
, founded in 1879, is the oldest, it offers education in various disciplines (law, medicine, science and letters). Twenty-five of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher education were founded after the independence of the country.

Even if some of them offer instruction in

University of Batna Hadj Lakhdar occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa.[254] Algeria was ranked 119th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[255][256]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Algeria
Algerian musicians in Tlemcen, Regency of Algiers ; by Bachir Yellès

Modern Algerian literature, split between

Islamist group in 1993 for his secularist views.[257]

Madaurus
(Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria.

Contemporary

Algerian cinema is varies in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians.[258]

Media

Main article:
Media of Algeria

Art

Mohammed Racim; founder of the Algerian school for painting

Algerian painters, like

Bachir Yelles, appeared on the scene of Algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways, to adapt Algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and its aspirations. Mohammed Khadda[259] and M'hamed Issiakhem have been notable in recent years.[259]

Literature

Main articles: Algerian literature and List of Algerian writers
Apuleius
Kateb Yacine

The historic roots of Algerian literature go back to the

Ibn Khaldoun, who wrote the Muqaddimah
while staying in Algeria, and many others.

Nobel Prize in literature
.

Today Algeria contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the Algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and French.

As a first step, Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as the Algerian trilogy of Mohammed Dib, or even Nedjma of Kateb Yacine novel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom include Mouloud Feraoun, Malek Bennabi, Malek Haddad, Moufdi Zakaria, Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mohamed Laïd Al-Khalifa, Mouloud Mammeri, Frantz Fanon, and Assia Djebar.

Ahlam Mosteghanemi, the most widely read female writer in the Arab world.[260]

In the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there are

Tahir Wattar
.

Currently, a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, the swallows of Kabul and the attack of Yasmina Khadra, the oath of barbarians of Boualem Sansal, memory of the flesh of Ahlam Mosteghanemi and the last novel by Assia Djebar nowhere in my father's House.

Music

Main article: Music of Algeria
El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka

Malouf style is saved by musician from whom Mohamed Tahar Fergani
is a performer.

Folk music styles include Bedouin music, characterized by the poetic songs based on long kacida (poems); Kabyle music, based on a rich repertoire that is poetry and old tales passed through generations; Shawiya music, a folklore from diverse areas of the Aurès Mountains. Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures. Souad Massi is a rising Algerian folk singer. Other Algerian singers of the diaspora include Manel Filali in Germany and Kenza Farah in France. Tergui music is sung in Tuareg languages generally, Tinariwen had a worldwide success. Finally, the staïfi music is born in Sétif and remains a unique style of its kind.

Modern music is available in several facets, Raï music is a style typical of western Algeria. Rap, a relatively recent style in Algeria, is experiencing significant growth.

Cinema

Main article: Cinema of Algeria
Mohammed Lakhdar-Hamina, one of the most prominent figures in contemporary Arabic cinema.

The Algerian state's interest in film-industry activities can be seen in the annual budget of DZD 200 million (EUR 1.3 million) allocated to production, specific measures and an ambitious programme plan implemented by the Ministry of Culture to promote national production, renovate the cinema stock and remedy the weak links in distribution and exploitation.

The financial support provided by the state, through the Fund for the Development of the Arts, Techniques and the Film Industry (FDATIC) and the Algerian Agency for Cultural Influence (AARC), plays a key role in the promotion of national production. Between 2007 and 2013, FDATIC subsidised 98 films (feature films, documentaries and short films). In mid-2013, AARC had already supported a total of 78 films, including 42 feature films, 6 short films and 30 documentaries.

According to the European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database, 41 Algerian films were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013; 21 films in this repertoire were Algerian-French co-productions. Days of Glory (2006) and Outside the Law (2010) recorded the highest number of admissions in the European Union, 3,172,612 and 474,722, respectively.[262]

Algeria won the Palme d'Or for Chronicle of the Years of Fire (1975), two Oscars for Z (1969), and other awards for the Italian-Algerian movie The Battle of Algiers.

Cuisine

Main article: Algerian cuisine
Couscous, the national dish of Algeria

Algerian cuisine is rich and diverse as a result of interactions and exchanges with other cultures and nations over the centuries.[263] It is based on both land and sea products. Conquests or demographic movement towards the Algerian territory were two of the main factors of exchanges between the different peoples and cultures. The Algerian cuisine is a mix of Arab, Berber, Turkish and French roots.[264][263]

Algerian cuisine offers a variety of dishes depending on the region and the season, but vegetables and cereals remain at its core. Most of the Algerian dishes are centered around bread, meats (lamb, beef or poultry), olive oil, vegetables, and fresh herbs. Vegetables are often used for salads, soups, tajines, couscous, and sauce-based dishes. Of all the Algerian traditional dishes available, the most famous one is couscous, recognized as a national dish.[265]

Sports

Main article: Sport in Algeria
The Algeria national football team

Various games have existed in Algeria since antiquity. In the

rifle shooting are part of cultural recreation of the Algerians.[266]

Football is the most popular sport in the country. The Algerian national football team, known as the Desert Foxes, has a strong fan base and has achieved success both domestically and internationally.[267][268]

Algeria has a long history in other sports such as

Ministry of Youth and Sports in Algeria manages sport-related activities.[272]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ see French language in Algeria
  2. ^ see English language in Algeria
  3. Arabic: الجزائر, romanized: al-Jazāʾir, [al.d͡ʒazaːʔir]
    ; French: Algérie
  4. Arabic: الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية, romanized
    : al-Jumhūriyah al-Jazāʾiriyah ad-Dīmuqrāṭiyah ash‑Shaʿbiyah; French: République algérienne démocratique et populaire
  1. ^ The transcription of Tamazight in the Tifinagh alphabet is not codified.[14]

Citations

  1. ^ "Constitution of Algeria, Art. 11". El-mouradia.dz. language: France and Arabic (government language); people of Algeria speak Arabic and Berber. Archived from the original on 18 July 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  2. ^ "Constitution of Algeria; Art. 11". Apn-dz.org. 28 November 1996. Archived from the original on 25 July 2013. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  3. ^ a b c "Algeria". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 20 March 2021. (Archived 2021 edition.)
  4. ^ "Démographie" [Demography] (PDF). Office National des Statistiques (in French). 1 January 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
  5. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Algeria)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Archived from the original on 2 November 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
  6. ^ "Distribution of Family Income – Gini Index". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 1 September 2009.
  7. ^ "GINI index (World Bank estimate)". World Bank. Archived from the original on 18 November 2018. Retrieved 24 February 2019.
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General bibliography

External links
The Wikibook Wikijunior:Countries A–Z has a page on the topic of: Algeria