Postcolonial literature
Postcolonial literature is the
Migrant literature and postcolonial literature show some considerable overlap. However, not all migration takes place in a colonial setting, and not all postcolonial literature deals with migration. A question of current debate is the extent to which postcolonial theory also speaks to migration literature in non-colonial settings.
Terminology
The significance of the prefix "post-" in "postcolonial" is a matter of contention among scholars and historians. In postcolonial studies, there has not been a unified consensus on when
Pramod Nayar defines postcolonial literature as "that which negotiates with, contests, and subverts Euro-American ideologies and representations"[7]
Evolution of the term
Before the term "postcolonial literature" gained currency among scholars, "commonwealth literature" was used to refer to writing in English from colonies or nations which belonged to the British Commonwealth. Even though the term included literature from Britain, it was most commonly used for writing in English written in British colonies. Scholars of commonwealth literature used the term to designate writing in English that dealt with the topic of colonialism. They advocated for its inclusion in literary curricula, hitherto dominated by the British canon. However, the succeeding generation of postcolonial critics, many of whom belonged to the post-structuralist philosophical tradition, took issue with the "commonwealth" label for separating non-British writing from "English" language literature written in Britain.[8] They also suggested that texts in this category frequently presented a short-sighted view on the legacy of colonialism.[9]
Other terms used for English-language literature from former British colonies include terms that designate a national corpus of writing such as Australian or Canadian literature; numerous terms such as "English Literature Other than British and American", "New Literatures in English", "International Literature in English"; and "World Literatures" were coined. These have, however, been dismissed either as too vague or too inaccurate to represent the vast body of dynamic writing emerging from British colonies during and after the period of direct colonial rule. The term "colonial" and "postcolonial" continue to be used for writing emerging during and after the period of colonial rule respectively.[10]
"Post-colonial" or "postcolonial"?
The consensus in the field is that "post-colonial" (with a hyphen) signifies a period that comes chronologically "after" colonialism. "Postcolonial," on the other hand, signals the persisting impact of colonization across time periods and geographical regions.[9] While the hyphen implies that history unfolds in neatly distinguishable stages from pre- to post-colonial, omitting the hyphen creates a comparative framework by which to understand the varieties of local resistance to colonial impact. Arguments in favor of the hyphen suggest that the term "postcolonial" dilutes differences between colonial histories in different parts of the world and that it homogenizes colonial societies.[11] The body of critical writing that participates in these debates is called Postcolonial theory.
Critical approaches
Postcolonial fiction writers deal with the traditional colonial
Another important theorist of colonial discourse is
Nationalism
The sense of identification with a nation, or nationalism, fueled anti-colonial movements that sought to gain independence from colonial rule. Language and literature were factors in consolidating this sense of national identity to resist the impact of colonialism. With the advent of the printing press, newspapers and magazines helped people across geographical barriers identify with a shared national community. This idea of the nation as a homogeneous imagined community connected across geographical barriers through the medium of language became the model for the modern nation.[16] Postcolonial literature not only helped consolidate national identity in anti-colonial struggles but also critiqued the European colonial pedigree of nationalism. As depicted in Salman Rushdie's novels for example, the homogeneous nation was built on European models by the exclusion of marginalized voices.[17] They were made up of religious or ethnic elites who spoke on behalf of the entire nation, silencing minority groups.[18]
Negritude, pan-Africanism and pan-nationalism
Back to Africa movement
Against advocates of literature that promoted African racial solidarity in accordance with negritude principles,
Anti-conquest
The "anti-conquest narrative" recasts the indigenous inhabitants of colonized countries as victims rather than foes of the colonisers.[28] This depicts the colonised people in a more human light but risks absolving colonisers of responsibility by assuming that native inhabitants were "doomed" to their fate.[28]
In her book Imperial Eyes,
Postcolonial feminist literature
Postcolonial feminist cultural theorists include Rey Chow, Maria Lugones, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, and Trinh T. Minh-ha.[37]
Pacific Islands
The
There is a burgeoning group of young pacific writers who respond and speak to the contemporary Pasifika experience, including writers Lani Wendt Young, Courtney Sina Meredith and Selina Tusitala Marsh. Reclamation of culture, loss of culture, diaspora, all themes common to postcolonial literature, are present within the collective Pacific writers. Pioneers of the literature include two of the most influential living authors from this region: Witi Ihimaera, New Zealand's first published Māori novelist,[38] and Samoan poet Albert Wendt (born 1939).[39][40] Wendt lives in New Zealand. Among his works is Leaves of the Banyan Tree (1979). He is of German heritage through his paternal great-grandfather, which is reflected in some of his poems.[41] He describes his family heritage as "totally Samoan", even though he has a German surname. However, he does not explicitly deny his German heritage.[42]
Another notable figure from the region is
Australia
At the point of the
While his father,
The voices of Indigenous Australians continue to be increasingly noticed, and include the playwright Jack Davis and Kevin Gilbert. Writers coming to prominence in the 21st century include Kim Scott, Alexis Wright, Kate Howarth, Tara June Winch, in poetry Yvette Holt and in popular fiction Anita Heiss.
Indigenous authors who have won Australia's high prestige
Many notable works have been written by non-Indigenous Australians on Aboriginal themes. Eleanor Dark's (1901–1985) The Timeless Land (1941) is the first of The Timeless Land trilogy of novels about European settlement and exploration of Australia. The narrative is told from European and Aboriginal points of view. Other examples include the poems of Judith Wright, The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith by Thomas Keneally, Ilbarana by Donald Stuart, and the short story by David Malouf: "The Only Speaker of his Tongue".
Africa
Bate Besong (1954–2007) was a Cameroonian playwright, poet and critic, who was described by Pierre Fandio as "one of the most representative and regular writers of what might be referred to as the second generation of the emergent Cameroonian literature in English".[58] Other Cameroonian playwrights are Anne Tanyi-Tang,[59] and Bole Butake.[60]
Dina Salústio (born 1941) is a Cabo Verdean novelist and poet, whose works are considered an important contribution to Lusophone postcolonial literature, with a particular emphasis on their promotion of women's narratives.[61][62]
Nigeria
Wole Soyinka (born 1934) is a playwright and poet, who was awarded the 1986 Nobel Prize in Literature,[64] the first African to be honored in that category. Soyinka was born into a Yoruba family in Abeokuta. After studying in Nigeria and Great Britain, he worked with the Royal Court Theatre in London. He went on to write plays that were produced in both countries, in theatres and on radio. He took an active role in Nigeria's political history and its campaign for independence from British colonial rule. In 1965, he seized the Western Nigeria Broadcasting Service studio and broadcast a demand for the cancellation of the Western Nigeria Regional Elections. In 1967 during the Nigerian Civil War, he was arrested by the federal government of General Yakubu Gowon and put in solitary confinement for two years.[65] Soyinka has been a strong critic of successive Nigerian governments, especially the country's many military dictators, as well as other political tyrannies, including the Mugabe regime in Zimbabwe. Much of his writing has been concerned with "the oppressive boot and the irrelevance of the colour of the foot that wears it".[66]
South Africa
Elleke Boehmer[69][full citation needed] writes, "Nationalism, like patriarchy, favours singleness—one identity, one growth pattern, one birth and blood for all ... [and] will promote specifically unitary or 'one-eyed' forms of consciousness." The first problem any student of South African literature is confronted with, is the diversity of the literary systems. Gerrit Olivier notes, "While it is not unusual to hear academics and politicians talk about a 'South African literature', the situation at ground level is characterised by diversity and even fragmentation".[70] Robert Mossman adds that "One of the enduring and saddest legacies of the apartheid system may be that no one – White, Black, Coloured (meaning of mixed-race in South Africa), or Asian – can ever speak as a 'South African.'"[71] The problem, however, pre-dates Apartheid significantly, as South Africa is a country made up of communities that have always been linguistically and culturally diverse. These cultures have all retained autonomy to some extent, making a compilation such as the controversial Southern African Literatures by Michael Chapman, difficult. Chapman raises the question:
[W]hose language, culture, or story can be said to have authority in South Africa when the end of apartheid has raised challenging questions as to what it is to be a South African, what it is to live in a new South Africa, whether South Africa is a nation, and, if so, what its mythos is, what requires to be forgotten and what remembered as we scour the past in order to understand the present and seek a path forward into an unknown future.[72]
South Africa has 11 national languages:
Olivier argues that "There is no obvious reason why it should be unhealthy or abnormal for different literatures to co-exist in one country, each possessing its own infrastructure and allowing theoreticians to develop impressive theories about polysystems".[73] Yet political idealism proposing a unified "South Africa" (a remnant of the plans drawn up by Sir Henry Bartle Frere) has seeped into literary discourse and demands a unified national literature, which does not exist and has to be fabricated. It is unrealistic to ever think of South Africa and South African literature as homogenous, now or in the near or distant future, since the only reason it is a country at all is the interference of European colonial powers. This is not a racial issue, but rather has to do with culture, heritage and tradition (and indeed the constitution celebrates diversity). Rather, it seems more sensible to discuss South African literature as literature produced within the national borders by the different cultures and language groups inhabiting these borders. Otherwise the danger is emphasising one literary system at the expense of another, and more often than not, the beneficiary is English, with the African languages being ignored. The distinction "black" and "white" literature is further a remnant of colonialism that should be replaced by drawing distinctions between literary systems based on language affiliation rather than race.
The first texts produced by black authors were often inspired by missionaries and frequently deal with African history, in particular the history of kings such as Chaka. Modern South African writing in the African languages tends to play at writing realistically, at providing a mirror to society, and depicts the conflicts between rural and urban settings, between traditional and modern norms, racial conflicts and most recently, the problem of AIDS.
In the first half of the 20th century, epics largely dominated black writing: historical novels, such as
The following are notable white South African writers in English:
The Americas
Caribbean Islands
Maryse Condé (born 1937) is a French (Guadeloupean) author of historical fiction, best known for her novel Segu (1984–1985).[78]
West Indies
The term "
Some West Indian writers have found it necessary to leave their home territories and base themselves in the United Kingdom, the United States, or Canada in order to make a living from their work—in some cases spending the greater parts of their careers away from the territories of their birth. Critics in their adopted territories might argue that, for instance, V. S. Naipaul ought to be considered a British writer instead of a Trinidadian writer, or Jamaica Kincaid and Paule Marshall American writers, but most West Indian readers and critics still consider these writers "West Indian".
West Indian literature ranges over subjects and themes as wide as those of any other "national" literature, but in general many West Indian writers share a special concern with questions of identity, ethnicity, and language that rise out of the Caribbean historical experience.
One unique and pervasive characteristic of Caribbean literature is the use of "dialect" forms of the national language, often termed creole. The various local variations in the European languages which became established in the West Indies during the period of European colonial rule. These languages have been modified over the years within each country and each has developed a blend that is unique to their country. Many Caribbean authors in their writing switch liberally between the local variation – now commonly termed nation language – and the standard form of the language.[82] Two West Indian writers have won the Nobel Prize in Literature: Derek Walcott (1992), born in St. Lucia, resident mostly in Trinidad during the 1960s and '70s, and partly in the United States since then; and V. S. Naipaul, born in Trinidad and resident in the United Kingdom since the 1950. (Saint-John Perse, who won the Nobel Prize in 1960, was born in the French territory of Guadeloupe.)
Other notable names in (anglophone) Caribbean literature have included
The most famous writer from the island of
Earl Lovelace (born 1935) is a Trinidadian novelist, journalist, playwright, and short story writer. He is particularly recognized for his descriptive, dramatic fiction on Trinidadian culture: "Using Trinidadian dialect patterns and standard English, he probes the paradoxes often inherent in social change as well as the clash between rural and urban cultures."[86] As Bernardine Evaristo notes, "Lovelace is unusual among celebrated Caribbean writers in that he has always lived in Trinidad. Most writers leave to find support for their literary endeavours elsewhere and this, arguably, shapes the literature, especially after long periods of exile. But Lovelace's fiction is deeply embedded in Trinidadian society and is written from the perspective of one whose ties to his homeland have never been broken."[87]
United States
American David Henry Hwang's play M. Butterfly addresses the Western perspective on China and the French as well as the American perspectives on Vietnam during the Vietnam War. It was inspired by Giacomo Puccini's opera Madama Butterfly.
African-American literature
Throughout American history,
By refuting the claims of the dominant culture, African-American writers were also attempting to subvert the literary and power traditions of the United States. Some scholars assert that writing has traditionally been seen as "something defined by the dominant culture as a white male activity."[90] This means that, in American society, literary acceptance has traditionally been intimately tied in with the very power dynamics which perpetrated such evils as racial discrimination. By borrowing from and incorporating the non-written oral traditions and folk life of the African diaspora, African-American literature broke "the mystique of connection between literary authority and patriarchal power."[91] In producing their own literature, African Americans were able to establish their own literary traditions devoid of the white intellectual filter. In 1922, W. E. B. Du Bois wrote that "the great mission of the Negro to America and to the modern world" was to develop "Art and the appreciation of the Beautiful".[92]
Puerto Rico
Canada
Canadian writer Margaret Laurence's work was informed by colonial relations and African culture when she lived in British Somaliland then the Gold Coast British colony in the 1950s near the end of their times as colonies. Margaret Atwood is a post-colonial writer who dealt with themes of identity-seeking through her Southern Ontario Gothic style of writing.[97]
Canadian Michael Ondaatje, is an internationally acclaimed author with Sri Lankan roots, which he has explored in works like Running in the Family (1983) and The Cat's Table (2011).[98]
Cyril Dabydeen (born 1945) is a Guyana-born, Canadian writer of Indian descent. He grew up in a sugar plantation with the sense of Indian indenture rooted in his family background.[99]
African-Canadian George Elliott Clarke has promoted Black authors with Directions Home: Approaches to African-Canadian Literature (2012) as well as his own poetry, novels and plays.
In the decade 2008-2018 Canadian Indigenous writers published so many works that some critics called it a renaissance. This phenomenon was studied in Introduction to Indigenous Literary Criticism in Canada (2015). Eds Heather MacFarlane & Armand Garnet Ruffo.
Canadian scholar, Joseph Pivato has promoted the study of ethnic minority authors with Comparative Literature for the New Century (2018). Eds. Giulia De Gasperi & Joseph Pivato.
East Asia
Korea
Chunghee Sara Soh's book The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan has shed new light on the practice of having forced sexual slavery, called "comfort women" during the Imperial Japanese army before and during World War II.
Taiwan
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West Asia: The Middle East
South and Southeast Asia
Philippines
Philippine literature includes the legends of prehistory, and the colonial legacy of the Philippines. Pre-Hispanic Philippine literature were actually epics passed on from generation to generation originally through oral tradition. However, wealthy families, especially in Mindanao were able to keep transcribed copies of these epics as family heirloom. One such epic was the Darangen, epic of the Maranaos of Lake Lanao. Most of the epics were known during the Spanish era.
Most of the notable literature of the Philippines was written during the Spanish period and the first half of the 20th century in the Spanish language.
Indonesia
Dutch East Indies
Singapore
India
One of the key issues is the superiority/inferiority of
The views of Salman Rushdie and Amit Chaudhuri expressed through their books The Vintage Book of Indian Writing and The Picador Book of Modern Indian Literature respectively essentialise this battle. Rushdie's statement in his book – "the ironic proposition that India's best writing since independence may have been done in the language of the departed imperialists is simply too much for some folks to bear" – created a lot of resentment among many writers, including writers in English. In his book, Amit Chaudhuri questions – "Can it be true that Indian writing, that endlessly rich, complex and problematic entity, is to be represented by a handful of writers who write in English, who live in England or America and whom one might have met at a party?"
Chaudhuri feels that after Rushdie, Indian writing in English started employing
Some of these arguments form an integral part of what is called
Indian authors like Amitav Ghosh, Anita Desai, Hanif Kureishi, Rohinton Mistry, Meena Alexander, Arundhati Roy and Kiran Desai have written about their postcolonial experiences.[citation needed]
The most significant novels of the current generation of Indian novelists in Urdu are Makaan by Paigham Afaqui (born 1956), Do Gaz Zameen by Abdus Samad, and Pani by Ghazanfer. These works, especially Makaan, has moved the Urdu novel beyond the prevalent themes relating to Pakistan's gaining of independence in 1947, and identity issues, and take it into modern-day realities and issues of life in India. Makaan influenced many English writers including Vikram Seth. Paigham Afaqui's second major novel, Paleeta, was published in 2011 and depicts the political cynicism of a common Indian citizen in the six decades after India's independence.[citation needed]
The
Khushwant Singh (1915-2014) has written numerous fiction and non-fiction novels about the India-Pakistan Partition.
Nissim Ezekiel (1924–2004) was a foundational figure in postcolonial India's literary history, specifically for Indian writing in English.
is an Indian social activist and writer.Urvashi Butalia's The Other Side of Silence[105] is a collection of oral histories and testimonies about the India-Pakistan Partition.
Sri Lanka
Sri Lankan writers like Nihal De Silva and Carl Muller write about the post-colonial situation and the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka. Notably authors such as the D.C.R.A Goonetilleke in Sri Lankan English Literature and the Sri Lankan People 1917-2003[106] targets the evolution of Sri Lankan English Literature specifically in regards to the acceptance of the English language and other major controversies of the time in Sri Lankan literature, after its Independence from the British Empire in 1948.
Bangladesh
Selim Al Deen from Bangladesh has also written postcolonial drama.
Europe
Britain
The novels of J. G. Farrell are important texts dealing with the decline of the British Empire. Farrell's novel Troubles, set during the Irish War of Independence (1919–1921), is the first instalment in Farrell's "Empire Trilogy", preceding The Siege of Krishnapur and The Singapore Grip, all written during the 1970s. Although there are similar themes within the three novels (most notably that of the British Empire), they do not form a sequence of storytelling. The Siege of Krishnapur was inspired by events such as the sieges of Cawnpore and Lucknow, and details the siege of a fictional Indian town, Krishnapur, during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 from the perspective of the city's British residents. The Singapore Grip is satirical book about events following Japan's entry into the Second World War and occupation of Singapore. The story centres on a British family who own one of the colony's leading trading companies.
Novelist E. M. Forster's A Passage to India (1924) takes as its subject the relationship between East and West, seen through the lens of India in the later days of the British Raj. Forster connects personal relationships with the politics of colonialism through the story of the Englishwoman Adela Quested, the Indian Dr. Aziz, and the question of what did or did not happen between them in the Marabar Caves.
An Outpost of Progress and Heart of Darkness by Polish-British writer Joseph Conrad are based on his experiences in the Congo Free State.[111] There is also The Congo Diary and Other Uncollected Pieces.
Wales
Wales was gradually annexed by the
Welsh poet, novelist and dramatist Saunders Lewis, who was a prominent support of nationalism in Wales, rejected the possibility of Anglo-Welsh literature due to the language's status as the official tongue of the British state, affirming that "the literature which people called Anglo-Welsh was indistinguishable from English literature".[112] Saunders Lewis was himself born in Wallasey in England to a Welsh-speaking family.
The attitude of the post-war generation of Welsh writers in English towards Wales differs from the previous generation, in that they were more sympathetic to
With the creation the
Ireland
The English language was introduced to
The 17th century saw the tightening of English control over Ireland and the suppression of the Irish aristocracy. This meant that the literary class lost its patrons, since the new nobility were English speakers with little interest for the older culture. The elaborate classical metres lost their dominance and were largely replaced by more popular forms.[118] This was an age of social and political tension, as expressed by the poet Dáibhí Ó Bruadair and the anonymous authors of Pairliment Chloinne Tomáis, a prose satire on the aspirations of the lower classes.[119] Prose of another sort was represented by the historical works of Geoffrey Keating (Seathrún Céitinn) and the compilation known as the Annals of the Four Masters.
The consequences of these changes were seen in the 18th century. Poetry was still the dominant literary medium and its practitioners were poor scholars, often educated in the classics at local schools and schoolmasters by trade. Such writers produced polished work in popular metres for a local audience. This was particularly the case in Munster, in the south-west of Ireland, and notable names included Eoghan Rua Ó Súilleabháin and Aogán Ó Rathaille of Sliabh Luachra. A certain number of local patrons were still to be found, even in the early 19th century, and especially among the few surviving families of the Gaelic aristocracy.[120] In the first half of the 18th century Dublin was the home of an Irish-language literary circle connected to the Ó Neachtain (Naughton) family, a group with wide-ranging Continental connections.[121]
With the
A war of independence in the early 20th century was followed by the partition of the island, creating the Irish Free State in 1922, which became increasingly sovereign over the following decades, and Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom.
Poland
Clare Cavanagh believes that literature of Poland is postcolonial.[122] Dariusz Skórczewski supports her[123] and reveals how the experiences of foreign domination and the history of empire have shaped contemporary Polish culture and society.[124] They both criticize Marxist basis of postcolonialism.
Romania
Further reading
- Lazarus, Neil, ed. (August 2006) [2004]. The Cambridge Companion to Postcolonial Literary Studies. Cambridge Companions to Literature and Classics Collection. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780511606755.
- Innes, C.L., ed. (June 2012) [2007]. The Cambridge Introduction to Postcolonial Literatures in English. Cambridge Companions to Literature and Classics Collection. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780511611339.
- Ramazani, Jahan, ed. (March 2017). The Cambridge Companion to Postcolonial Poetry. Cambridge Companions to Literature and Classics Collection. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781316111338.
- Clark, Robert, ed. (December 2017). The Cambridge Companion to Postcolonial Travel Writing. Cambridge Companions to Literature and Classics Collection. Cambridge Univserity Press. ISBN 9781316597712.
- Abu-Manneh, Bashir, ed. (December 2018). After Said: Postcolonial Literary Studies in the Twenty-First Century. After Series. Cambridge Univserity Press. ISBN 9781108554251.
- Lalla, Barbara. Postcolonialisms: Caribbean Rereading of Medieval English Discourse. The University of the West Indies Press. ISBN 9789766402013.
- Bahri, Deepika (2003). Native Intelligence: Aesthetics, Politics, and Postcolonial Literature. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 9780816639403.
- Archibald-Barber, Jesse (December 2015). "Native Literature is Not Postcolonial". ESC: English Studies in Canada. 41 (4). Association of Canadian College and University Teachers of English. . Retrieved 16 September 2023.
- King, Thomas (18 July 2008) [1990]. "Godzilla vs. Post‐Colonial". World Literature Written in English. 30 (2): 10–16. .
- Book: Postcolonial Literature - Kaminikanta Mohanty; CC-XIII (English Honors).
See also
- Postcolonial Studies
- Journal of Postcolonial Writing
- Breton literature
- Catalan literature
- Colonial cinema
- Caribbean literature
- Caribbean poetry
- Native American literature
- Francophone literature
- Māori poetry
- TSAR Publications – a book publisher focusing on Canadian multicultural literature
- Vernacular literature
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- ^ Condé, Maryse, and Richard Philcox. Tales from the Heart: True Stories from My Childhood. New York: Soho, 2001
- ^ Ramchand, Kenneth. The West Indian Novel and Its Background. London: Faber, 1970.
- ^ Griffith, Glyne. "Deconstructing Nationalisms: Henry Swanzy, Caribbean Voices and the Development of West Indian Literature", Small Axe, Number 10 (Volume 5, Number 2), September 2001, pp. 1-20.
- ^ Dalleo, Raphael. Caribbean Literature and the Public Sphere: From the Plantation to the Postcolonial. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2012.
- ^ Waters, Erika J. (2009). "Paradise Revealed: Readings in Caribbean Literature". Maine Humanities Council. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
- ^
"100 'most inspiring' novels revealed by BBC Arts". BBC News. 5 November 2019. Retrieved 10 November 2019.
The reveal kickstarts the BBC's year-long celebration of literature.
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- ^ Meer, Amanda http://bombsite.com/issues/29/articles/1264 Fall 1989. Retrieved May 20, 2013
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - S2CID 212759434.
- ISBN 978-0-8142-5552-0.
- .
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- ^ Dr Uttam Das, Reader, Calcutta University, in his dissertation 'Hungry Shruti and Shastravirodhi Andolan'
- ^ Detailed Biography Archived 2010-03-26 at the Wayback Machine Ramon Magsaysay Award.
- ISBN 978-0-313-31192-5. Retrieved 6 October 2012.
- ^ "The Other Side of Silence". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 March 2022.
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- ^ "Penguin Books". randomhouse.co.uk.
- ^ For instance, in Day of the Scorpion, Sarah Layton envies the "self-assurance" of her older aunt. See Day of the Scorpion, Book Two Part Two ch. IV
- Anglo-Indians were shocked at the egalitarian attitude displayed by a recent English immigrant towards an Indian. See Day of the Scorpion Book Two Part One Ch. I
- ^ review of Raj Quartet in [permanent dead link] in The Spectator
- ^ Joseph Conrad in the Light of Postcolonialism
- ^ Michael J. Collins, "Keeping the Flag Flying: Anglo-Welsh Poetry in the Twentieth Century". World Literature Today, Vol. 56, no. 1 (Winter 1982); Saunders Lewis, "Is There an Anglo-Welsh Literature", Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1939.
- ^ The Pocket Guide, p. 122.
- ^ a b Los Angeles Times, "Obituary", September 27, 2000
- ^ R. S. Thomas, Selected Prose, ed. Sandra Anstey. Brigend: Poetry Wales Press, 1986, p. 53.
- ^ "2011 Census, Key Statistics for Unitary Authorities in Wales". Office for National Statistics. 11 December 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
- ^ "Census 2001: Main statistics about Welsh". Welsh Language Board. Archived from the original on 24 May 2011. Retrieved 30 September 2010.
- ^ TLG 201–223.
- ^ See the introduction to Williams (1981). The text is bilingual.
- ^ Caerwyn Williams and Ní Mhuiríosa (1979), pp. 252–268, 282–290. See Corkery (1925) for a detailed discussion of the social context.
- ^ Caerwyn Williams and Ní Mhuiríosa (1979), pp. 279–282.
- ^ Postcolonial Poland
- ^ Post-colonial Poland. (Im)possible project
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- ^ Postcolonial Readings of Romanian Identity Narratives
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