Religious policy of the Mughals after Akbar

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The

Hindu Rajputs and Khatris. The Mughal rulers were successful in reigning over a long period of time over the vast area of the subcontinent because of their administrative and religious policy, which provided for the cohesion among various sects and creeds. Both Babur and Humayun were busy throughout their regnal years in wars and conquest apart from suppression of revolt and couldn't devote enough time for the administration and policies formulation. It was Akbar (who promoted the syncretic religion called Dīn-i Ilāhī) during whose reign the religious policy of the Mughals were formulated. The later Mughals followed Akbar but violation of his policy went unabated many a times leading to the complete downfall of the theory of "divine religion" propounded by Akbar during the regnal years of Aurangzeb.[1]

Abu'l-Fazl, one of the disciples of Din-i-Ilahi, presenting Akbarnama to Akbar
, Mughal miniature.

Jahangir

When Jahangir ascended the throne there was a hope among theologians that Akbar's policies of

Ulemas to prepare a set of distinctive appeals to the god, which might be easy to remember, as he wanted to repeat them while using his rosary. He also met the pious and religious persons on Fridays and distributed the alms and gifts to the dervishes. But in no way Jahangir was an orthodox though he often showed the incidents of narrow mindedness. Jahangir was habitual of drinking; he writes in his memoirs to have reduced the intake of distilled spirit from 20 cups to five cups after his accession to the throne and that too on night.[2] Meanwhile, he also used to invite his nobles while drinking and music and dance were common in his courts. All these practices were considered as un-islamic for the orthodox Ulemas.[3]

He is said to have prohibited cow slaughter in

Khurram to treat Rana Amar Singh I
as a friend if he prepares to submit. Thus, when Rana submitted and sued for the peace he was given an honourable treatment as Jahangir notes:

When Rana clasped his (Khurram's) feet and asked forgiveness for his faults, he took his head and placed it on his breast and consoled him in such a manner as to comfort him.[5]

In 1621, the Kangra campaign was also declared as a Jihad though from the side of the Mughals, Hindu Raja Bikramjit commanded it. Jahangir while his visit to Haridwar founded that Hindus who renounced the worldly life were seeking pleasure on the path of god here and he distributed gifts to them. In

Vir Singh Bundela erected grand temples at Mathura. Jahangir himself visited Brindawan and distributed alms to the Mathas of Chaitanya sect. According to Historian R.P. Tripathi, he was less tolerant than Akbar but more than Shah Jahan on the ground of religion.[3]

There are incidents, when he showed his narrow level of tolerance, and inflicted heavy penalties upon some of the notable people. In the case of

Caliphs in his dreams, and was punished by the Emperor, as he strongly refuted his claims. Another Sufi called Shaikh Nizam Thanesari was banished to Mecca, on the charge of accompanying Khusrau Mirza for some distance. He started a practice of rewarding the pious and knowledgeable person after testing their knowledge and economic condition every day. He ordered such people to be brought before him and after their personal examination he forwarded monetary and other support to them, but this practice was restricted to Muslims only.[3]

Jahangir found more satisfaction in the theory of

Tasawwuf. He became an admirer of Jadrup Gosain, who according to him had mastered this science, and used to live in a hole in a mountain. Jahangir walked barefooted to see him, and on meeting with him, he was impressed with his knowledge and simplicity. He wanted to invite him to Agra but was alarmed by the orthodox elements. Later, Jadrup Gosain moved to Mathura, where Jahangir met him twice. He also dismissed the brother-in-law of Nur Jahan, Hakim Beg, from the governorship of Mathura as he disrespected Gosain. Jahangir also hosted Brahmins in his court and often used to listen to them as for example, a Brahmin from Gujarat who accompanied Ramdas Kachhwaha used to present his discourse upon sanctity of Cows and the story of Dadhichi, a sage who offered his bones for the cause of world.[6]

Ahmad Sirhindi continues his religious discourses by writing a large number of letters to the nobles, with particularly towards Shaikh Farid Murtaza Khan, a Mir Bakshi official, to convince the emperor about this religious issue.[7] It is also known through his letter correspondence with the imperial government figures, that Ahmad Sirhindi were routinely attend the court debates to counteract some religious beliefs and doctrines which prevalent in the court.[8] In the process, it is recorded from these correspondence which compiled in 1617, that Farid Murtaza Khan took Ahmad Sirhindi advices regarding this matter.[7] His efforts influenced Abul Fazl, protegee of emperor Akbar, to support Ahmad Sirhindi in effort to convince Jahangir, successor of Akbar, to reverse the policies of Akbar of tolerating Hindus in Mughal court.[9]

Yohanan Friedmann has noted that according to many modern historians and thinkers, the puritanical though of Ahmad Sirhindi has inspired the religious orthodoxy of emperor Aurangzeb.[10][11] This was noted by how Ahmad Sirhindi manage to influence the successor of emperor Akbar, starting from Jahangir, into reversing Akbar policies such as lifting marriage age limits, mosque abolishments, and Hijra methodology revival which abandoned by his father.[12] It is noted by historians that this influence has been significantly recorded during the conquest of Kangra under Jahangir, that at the presence of Ahmad Sirhindi who observed the campaign, the Mughal forces had the Idols broken, a cow slaughtered, Khutbah sermon read, and other Islamic rituals performed.[13] Further mark of Jahangir departure from Akbar secular policy were recorded Terry, a traveller, who came and observed India region between 1616-1619, where he found the mosques full of worshippers, the exaltation of Quran and Hadith practical teaching, and the complete observance of Fasting during Ramadan and Eid al-Fitr celebrations.[13]

Shah Jahan

To some extent, the reign of Shah Jahan saw a shift from the liberal policies. In the sixth regnal year, he announced that the

Jama Masjid at Delhi and Taj Mahal at Agra
. These monuments were commensurate with the Islamic idea of
Shia Muslim to be heretics (Kafir) in his pamphlet. He was in favour of strict enforcement of the injunctions of the Sharia.[14]

Mullah Shah Badakhshi
), ca. 1635

Shah Jahan joined neither of this religious current and while proclaiming the state to be an Islamic one, he never refrained from the liberal policies completely. He also took the form of a staunch Muslim emperor at times and it was witnessed during the Bundela rebellion, when Temple built by Vir Singh Bundela at Orchha was destroyed by the Mughal forces. Shah Jahan supported some of the wealthy

Qazi that banishing someone from his personal possession is against the Islamic jurisprudence, Shah Jahan restored the Temple to him.[15]

As an Emperor, Shah Jahan didn't allow the orthodox elements to dominate and except few incidents of narrow mindedness like in the reign of Jahangir, the Empire as a whole ran with support of heterogeneous nobility in which Hindus were given proper representation. He was also fond of music and dance like Jahangir, and

Mullah Shah Badakhshi, who were mentor of Dara Shukoh propagating idea of mutual co-existence.[18]

Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb's religious policies are one of the most debated topic than those of other Mughal rulers. Some historians like Jadunath Sarkar consider his religious stand to be full of bigotry and religious intolerance, while others like Shibli Naumani describes it as a matter of political expediency. Satish Chandra explains it neutrally, while not going in the debate of "for" and "against". Some of the Aurangzeb's policy can be seen as a direct attack on Hindus while others could be seen as need of time. In the initial years of his reign, Aurangzeb floated the farmans which called for banning of practices like Jharokha Darshan; Tula Dan (weighing the Emperor against the gold and silver) which was started by Akbar. Though, Audrey Truschke believes that some of these shift were statesmanship. Also, later in life, he even recommended the weighing rites to his grandson Bidar Bakht.[19] He also prohibited inscribing Khutba (Islamic verses) on coins and reimposed Jizya on non-Muslims which was abolished by Akbar. Aurangzeb also ordered all the newly built Temples to be destroyed while the older ones were prohibited from being repaired. He also ordered the governor of Gujarat to prohibit the Hindus from celebrating the festival like Holi and Diwali outside the Bazaars of Ahmedabad. These steps, except the last one, didn't affect Hindus directly.[20]

There are a set of his royal orders which could be seen as a direct attempt to harass Hindus and to portray him as an ideal Islamic ruler. During his governorship of Gujarat, Aurangzeb publicly desecrated newly built "Chintaman Temple", by killing a cow in its premise and converting it into Mosque. Other steps like demolition of

Marathas and Rajput kingdoms and also against the Deccani Sultanates which had sided with the heretics.[20]

It is paradoxical that he banned music in royal court, but a large number of the treatise on music were written during his reign, and he himself was proficient in playing Veena. He is also said to have banned Muharram procession (a Shia tradition) in all provinces after violent clashes took place during one such procession. According to Chandra, the stand of Aurangzeb can be described as the stand of a person who due to remorse of his deeds, took shelter in the shell of religion. The number of Hindus in mansab was not reduced as compared to his predecessors and he continued to have good relations with the Rajputs. Jai Singh I remained his close companions and he even pitted him against numerous Hindu kings including Shivaji.[1] Even during war of succession, more Rajputs backed Dara, while more Marathas backed Aurangzeb.[19]

See also

References

  1. ^
    ISBN 978-81-250-3226-7
    . Retrieved 24 September 2020.
  2. ISBN 978-93-5118-093-7
    . Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  3. ^
    ISBN 978-1-83860-045-7
    . Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  4. ISBN 978-0-19-536060-8
    .
  5. ISBN 978-93-5118-093-7
    . Retrieved 23 September 2020. When Rana clasped his (Khurram's) feet and asked forgiveness for his faults, he took his head and placed it on his breast and consoled him in such a manner as to comfort him," notes Jahangir. The Rana and Prince then exchanged gift.
  6. ISBN 978-93-85890-81-9
    . Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  7. ^
    JSTOR 44304065
    . Retrieved 6 March 2024.
  8. JSTOR 44137073
    . n : It v as written from the Imperial Camp. It shows that the Imam was held in esteem in the Imperial Court, used to attend it daily and by his daily debates there used to counter-act the beliefs and doctrines pre- valent in court. /It almost gives a list of the beliefs and doctrines which were discussed, criticised and ridiculed in the Court. T
  9. ISBN 9780521566032
    . Retrieved 4 December 2023.
  10. ISBN 9780691134840
    . Retrieved 6 March 2024.
  11. ^ Malik, Zubair & Parveen 2016, p. 162-163.
  12. ^ Malik, Zubair & Parveen 2016, p. 158-161.
  13. ^ a b Malik, Zubair & Parveen 2016, p. 159-161.
  14. ^
    ISBN 978-81-317-0628-2
    . Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  15. ISBN 81-7188-017-7
    . Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  16. ISBN 978-0-19-976592-8
    . Retrieved 24 September 2020.
  17. ISBN 978-1-78076-250-0
    .
  18. ISBN 8176250872
    . pp. 205–209.
  19. ^
    ISBN 978-0-14-343967-7
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  20. ^
    ISBN 978-0-14-343967-7
    . Retrieved 24 September 2020.

Bibliography
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