Ronald Reagan and AIDS
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Personal life 33rd Governor of California
40th President of the United States Legacy |
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AIDS was first medically recognized in 1981, in New York and California, and the term AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) was adopted in 1982 to describe the disease. Lester Kinsolving, a reporter in the White House press pool, attempted to ask many early questions on AIDS, but his questions were not taken seriously. The 1985 illness and death of Rock Hudson from AIDS marked a major turning point in how the American public viewed AIDS, with major policy shifts and funding increases coming in the wake of his death. Reagan did not publicly acknowledge AIDS until 1985 and did not give an address on it until 1987.
Reports on AIDS from Surgeon General C. Everett Koop in 1986 and James D. Watkins in 1988 were provided to the Reagan administration and offered information about AIDS and policy suggestions on how to limit its spread. However, the administration largely disregarded the recommendations in the reports. Towards the end of his presidency in 1988, Reagan took some steps to implement policies to stop the spread of AIDS such as notifications to those at risk of infection and barring federal discrimination against civilian employees with AIDS, though these actions have been criticized as not wide enough in their scope and too late in the crisis to prevent the deaths of tens of thousands of Americans.
As gay men, transgender women, and
Background
HIV/AIDS
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease characterized by a
HIV was first identified as the cause of AIDS and isolated in parallel by researchers
Ronald Reagan
Pre-presidential views on homosexuality
1980 Presidential election
Ronald Reagan was elected as President of the United States on November 4, 1980, and took office on January 20, 1981. The
Reagan administration response
Emergence of AIDS
First mention by the White House
On October 15, 1982, the White House answered its first question about the AIDS crisis,[18] marking the first official statement from the White House on AIDS.[11] At a regular White House Press Briefing, reporter Lester Kinsolving asked a question about AIDS, leading to the following exchange with White House Press Secretary Larry Speakes:
Kinsolving: Does the President have any reaction to the announcement by the
Center for Disease Controlin Atlanta that A-I-D-S is now an epidemic in 600- over 600 cases?Speakes: [Mumbling under his breath] A-I-D-S. [Unintelligible]
Kinsolving: Over a third of them have died. It's known as "gay plague".
[Scattered laughter from the press pool.]
Kinsolving: No, it is. I mean, it's a pretty serious thing. One in every three people that get this have died. And I wonder if the President was aware of this.
Speakes: I don't have it. Are you-
[More scattered laughter.]
Speakes: Do you?
Kinsolving: You don't have it? Well, I'm relieved to hear that, Larry!
[Press pool laughter.]
Speakes: Do you?
Kinsolving: I'm delighted. No, I don't.
Speakes: You didn't answer my question. How do you know?
Kinsolving: Does the President- in other words, the White House looks on this as a great joke?
Speakes: No, I don't know anything about it Lester.
Kinsolving: Does the President? Does anybody in the White House know about this epidemic, Larry?
Speakes: I don't think so, I don't think there's been any-
Kinsolving: Nobody knows.
Speakes: There's been no personal experience here, Lester.
Kinsolving: No I mean, I thought you [unintelligable]
Speakes: Doctor- I checked thoroughly with Dr. Ruge this morning and he's had no, uh,
[Press pool laughter.]
Speakes: No patients suffered from A-I-D-S or whatever it is.
Subsequent questions from Kinsolving
Kinsolving, despite being personally against homosexuality, continued to press Speakes on the AIDS issue over the following years. On June 12, 1983, a second exchange on the topic of AIDS occurred between Kinsolving and Speakes, in which Speakes said that the President was "briefed on the AIDS situation a number of months ago", the first public indication that Reagan was aware of the AIDS epidemic.
On December 11, 1984, Kinsolving asked another question about AIDS, his last such exchange for which known records exist.[21] Speakes noticed Kinsolving making his way to the front and called on him, leading to the following exchange:
Kinsolving: Since the Center for Disease Control in Atlanta-
[Laughter and chatter from press pool begins, and continues throughout.]
Speakes: [laughing] This is gonna be an AIDS question?
Kinsolving: ...that an estimated- [interrupted by chatter] Look, can I ask the question Larry? An estimated three hundred thousand people have been exposed to AIDS which can be transmitted through saliva.[a] Will the President as Commander in Chief take steps to protect armed forces who perform medical services from, um, AIDS patients, or those who run the risk of spreading AIDS in the same manner that they vet typhoid fever people from being involved in health or food services?
[Unintelligible cross-chatter and laughter.]
Kinsolving: Could you... [becoming angry] Is the President concerned about this subject Larry? That seems to have evoked so much jocular reaction here. I- you know-
Speakes: [overlapping] I haven't heard him express... concern. I haven't heard him express...
Unidentified speaker: It isn't only the jocks, Lester!
Unidentified speaker: Has he sworn off water faucets?[b]
Kinsolving: No but I mean, is he going to do anything, Larry?
Speakes: Lester, I have not heard him express anything on it. Sorry.
Kinsolving: You mean he has no- expressed no opinion about this epidemic?
Speakes: [mocking] No, but I must confess I haven't asked him about it.
Kinsolving: Would you ask him, Larry? [Conversation continues without question being answered.]
1983 meetings
On June 21, 1983, Reagan held a meeting with the
However, Reagan was dissatisfied with his meeting with the task force, and in August of that year scheduled another meeting on the AIDS epidemic, this time without any representatives of the LGBT community, instead choosing to meet with conservative activists.
According to historian Jennifer Brier, these meetings and the attitudes prevailing in them deeply complicated epidemiologists' efforts. While public health leaders and
1984 Election
In the 1984 Presidential Election, Reagan was re-elected as president, defeating Democratic challenger Walter Mondale in a landslide election. His support among evangelicals increased compared to 1980, as he won 78% of the evangelical vote, further entrenching his support in a group among whom many held deep antipathy for homosexuals and those with AIDS.[30] Neither Mondale nor Reagan made any public statement on the AIDS during the campaign, and no reporter raised the issue with the candidates.[31]
Funding for AIDS treatment and research
One of the major priorities of the Reagan administration was to slash the federal budget in all areas except the military, part of an economic policy which came to be known as
Prior to 1983, AIDS did not have specific funding, and research on AIDS instead had to be pulled from the CDC and NIH's general funding pools.
On April 12, 1983, Don Francis, then a CDC epidemiologist and AIDS researcher, wrote a memo to CDC Assistant Director Walter R. Dowdle asking for more resources to deal with the AIDS crisis, imploring that the current funding was not nearly adequate to deal with the epidemic, "The inadequate funding to date has seriously restricted our work and has presumably deepened the invasion of [AIDS] into the American population... it has sandwiched those responsible for research and control between massive pressure to do what is right and an ummovable wall of inadequate resources."[36]
On September 28, 1982, H.R. 7192, the first legislation to propose to fund AIDS research, was proposed in the
Congress would have to discern for itself how much money government doctors needed to fight AIDS. The administration would resist but not put itself in the position of an on-the-record funding veto. The epidemic's research would survive from continuing resolution to continuing resolution, a game that would ultimately achieve some funding for the doctors while disabling any attempt to plan ahead for studies that might be needed as the scourge continued to grow.
Death of Rock Hudson
Diagnosis
On May 15, 1984,
Hudson attempted to hide his illness throughout the rest of 1984 and well into 1985, despite the deterioration of his health. In his public appearances, he progressively appeared more and more emaciated, leading to public speculation on his health.[39][41] Finally, on July 25, 1985, after Hudson collapsed at the Hôtel Ritz in Paris, Hudson publicist Yanou Collart publicly confirmed that Hudson had AIDS.[42]
Hudson's plea
At the time Hudson was diagnosed, treatments for AIDS were still in their infancy, and even trials were unavailable in the United States.[13] In 1985, as his disease worsened, Hudson travelled to Paris, where he sought to seek treatment from Dominique Dormant, a French Army doctor who had secretly treated him for AIDS in the fall of 1984 with HPA-23.[43][44] After his collapse at the Ritz Hotel on July 21, 1985, Hudson was admitted to the American Hospital of Paris; Dormant, however, was working at a military hospital and was denied permission to admit Hudson, as Hudson was not a French citizen. Further, Dormant was at first not even able to enter the American Hospital to see Hudson.[43]
Staff and doctors at the American Hospital wanted to throw Hudson out, as they felt associating the renowned hospital with the "gay disease" of AIDS would tarnish its reputation, and pressure built on Hudson to transfer to the military hospital.
In the evening of July 24, 1985, thanks to Hudson publicist Yanou Collart's connections with French officials, Dormant was finally allowed to enter the American Hospital to see Hudson.
Effects
It was commonly accepted now, among the people who had understood the threat for many years, that there were two clear phases to the disease in the United States: there was AIDS before Rock Hudson and AIDS after.
—Author and AIDS advocate Randy Shilts in his book And the Band Played On.[48]
The illness and death of Hudson marked a major turning point in the public perception of AIDS. Hudson, a man who was famous, masculine, and for most of his life perceived as heterosexual, brought new a new kind of understanding of those suffering from AIDS to the American public.[49] As Randy Shilts writes in And the Band Played On: "There were two clear phases to the disease in the United States: there was AIDS before Rock Hudson and AIDS after."[48] Just weeks after the death of Hudson, the United States Congress doubled the federal funds allocated to finding a cure for AIDS.[13]
Reagan was personally deeply affected by Hudson's battle with AIDS, despite the fact that in his own words he "never knew him too well".
Reagan acknowledges AIDS
On September 17, 1985, less than two months after Hudson had come forward with his AIDS diagnosis, Reagan finally publicly acknowledged AIDS for the first time when he was asked a question about it by a reporter at a presidential press conference.
The reporter asked Reagan about the urging of the nation's "best-known AIDS scientist" that funding be greatly increased for AIDS research in a "moonshot" program, similar to the targeting of cancer in
Some, such as
Koop Report
Commissioning and creation
On February 6, 1986, Reagan began his administration's first significant initiative against AIDS when he declared finding a cure for AIDS to be "one of our highest public health priorities" and ordered
Koop enlisted the help of
Contents
The 36-page report was released on October 22, 1986, and was an immediate bombshell.
Reactions
I feel you can never separate your faith from yourself. On the other hand, I am the surgeon general, not the chaplain of the public health service.
—C. Everett Koop[57]
Reactions to the report among conservatives were sharply negative.
Reagan was described as "uncomfortable" with the report's implications, saying of its recommendation for comprehensive sex education over abstinence-only sex education, "I would think that sex education should begin with the moral ramifications, that it is not just a physical activity that doesn't have any moral connotation."[58] Reagan's Secretary of Education William Bennett also reacted negatively to the Koop report, and made abstinence-only sex education one of his top priorities while publicly ridiculing Koop's advice to teach condom usage.[57]
Most on the other side of the aisle, however, including former Koop critics
The Reagan administration did not ultimately act directly on the report's suggestions; in 1988, however, a version of the report was turned into a brochure called Understanding AIDS. On May 5, 1988, it was announced that a copy of the brochure would be mailed to every household in America, numbering 107 million copies, making it the largest mass-mailing in US history at the time.[62] The decision to mail the brochure was made by Koop, under a mandate from the United States Congress.[59]
Speech at the American Foundation for AIDS Research
In the spring of 1987,
In the course of creating the address, Parvin discovered that the president had never actually had a meeting with C. Everett Koop about AIDS. He arranged for Reagan and Koop to have a one-on-one meeting on the subject, but the White House insisted on adding political advisors such as William Bennett and Gary Bauer to the meeting, resulting in an argument between Koop, who favored emphasizing what was known about the spread of AIDS from a medical perspective, and the conservative advisors, who wanted to emphasize AIDS victims' lifestyle choices (such as drug use and homosexuality) as the reason for the spread of AIDS.[63] In the end, however, Parvin mostly favored Koop's perspective, and none of the most extreme conservative suggestions made it into the speech.[63]
Reagan delivered the address on May 31, 1987. The audience, many of whom had AIDS, booed and jeered Reagan several times throughout the speech.
Parvin later said of the speech, "There was some good stuff in it, but not enough."[65] Still, the speech marked a turning point for Reagan's public acknowledgement of AIDS, and Reagan himself wrote that he was "pleased with the whole affair" despite the boos.[67] Two months later, Reagan visited the National Cancer Institute to hold an HIV-positive 14-month-old baby.[13]
Watkins Commission
Creation of the commission and membership
On June 24, 1987, Reagan issued
Nancy Reagan pushed strongly for the inclusion of a
In the end however, Nancy's pressure on her husband won out, and at the recommendation of her stepbrother (who was a doctor),
Controversial among AIDS groups was the snub of any AIDS advocate for a spot on the committee, with the
On October 8, 1987, after months of infighting and little progress, Mayberry resigned from the post alongside Health Commissioner of Indiana
Report
The Watkins Commission report (officially titled Report of the Presidential Commission on the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Epidemic) was released on June 27, 1988. The report was unflinching in its assessment of the Reagan administration's response to that point, describing a "lack of leadership" as one of the biggest obstacles to progress against AIDS.[73][74] The Watkins Commission report also made a number of policy suggestions, many of which overlapped with the suggestions in the Koop Report. In total, the 203-page report makes 579 specific recommendations for fighting AIDS,[74] including:
- A push for public understanding and federal legislation to fight discrimination against individuals with AIDS, and calling on the Reagan administration to cease their opposition to such a law.[74]
- Comprehensive public education about AIDS, starting in kindergarten and continuing through grade 12.[75]
- $3 billion more per year for funding against AIDS for federal, state, and local governments.[74]
- New emergency powers for the Surgeon General, to act quickly in the event of public health crises.[74]
- Ensuring "rigorous maintenance of confidentiality" for all HIV/AIDS victims.[76]
- Notifications to all people who received a blood transfusion since 1977 (when HIV was believed to have entered the blood supply) to inform them they should be tested for AIDS.[77]
Implementation of the report's suggestions
On August 2, 1988, Reagan outlined a 10-point "action plan" against AIDS based on the Watkins Commission report. The plan implemented some of the report's proposed policies, such as notices to those who received blood transfusions between 1977 and 1985 that they should get tested for AIDS, barring federal discrimination against civilian employees with AIDS, and an increase in local programs to help provide AIDS education to those at high risk of AIDS infection.[78] However, the plan stopped short of many of the report's major suggestions, as the President declined to support a national ban on discrimination against those with AIDS.[78] The Reagan administration did not implement any more of the report's policy proposals before Reagan's term ended in January 1989.[74]
AIDS advocates were generally unhappy with Reagan's actions, believing they did not go nearly far enough and ignored the Watkins Commission report's central recommendations.[74] AIDS advocate Elizabeth Glaser, who had personally lobbied Reagan to listen to the commission's report, said of the administration's implementation, "Time went by, and nothing happened. It was almost unimaginable, but the White House took the report and put it on the shelf."[74][79]
Reagan's personal views
Reagan was a Christian, and personally held the belief that homosexuality was a sin. In early 1987, Reagan had a discussion on the AIDS epidemic with his biographer, Edmund Morris, in which Reagan commented "maybe the Lord brought down this plague" because "illicit sex is against the Ten Commandments".[80] According to John Hutton, one of Reagan's personal physicians, when private citizens would ask Reagan what should be done about AIDS, he would often respond that "money might not be the answer" and that "perhaps people are supposed to modify their behaviors".[51]
Reagan was also known to frequently make homophobic jokes, or mockingly act in an effeminate way to get a laugh.
Reagan was well known for keeping a diary that he would unfailingly update every day. Mentions of AIDS in these diaries are sparse – on June 24, 1985, Reagan mentions AIDS in reference to learning from a report on television that Rock Hudson may have had AIDS, rather than cancer as had been previously reported. After this entry, it was more than two years before Reagan again mentioned AIDS in his writing.[13]
Advocacy by Nancy and Ron Reagan
Reagan's wife, Nancy, and his son, Ron, were both privately sympathetic to LGBT movements, and attempted at various points to lobby Reagan to do more about the AIDS crisis.[39] Nancy had long had many gay men in her circle of friends, and Ron knew people who were suffering from AIDS from his time ballet dancing in New York City's Joffrey Ballet.[13] In 1987, Ron's disagreements with his father's policies began to cross from private into the public sphere. In July 1987, Ron starred in a television commercial criticizing his father's administration for its inaction on the AIDS pandemic. In the commercial, Ron urged the audience: "The U.S. government isn't moving fast enough to stop the spread of AIDS. Write to your congressman," before adding with a smile, "or someone higher up."[84] He also appeared in a 30-minute public service announcement on AIDS, which was shown on PBS, in which he taught the audience how to use a condom and spermicide and encourages viewers to use them.[84] These public disagreements frustrated the elder Reagan, who wrote in his diary on July 18, 1987, that he disagreed with his son's stances, complaining that "[Ron] can be stubborn on a couple of issues & won't listen to anyone's argument."[84]
Meeting with Elizabeth Glaser
In June 1988, a friend of the Reagans put them in contact with AIDS advocate
At their meeting the week before the Watkins Commission report was released, Glaser told the Reagans the story of her and her children's battles with AIDS, reportedly bringing them to tears. As Glaser prepared to leave, President Reagan asked her, "Tell me what you want me to do."[86][87] Glaser reportedly asked him to "be a leader in the struggle against AIDS" so her children could go to school without discrimination, and to listen to what the Watkins Commission report would say when it was released. Reagan promised that he would "read that report with different eyes than I would have before."[86][88] When the Reagan administration failed to act on many of the report's policy suggestions, Glaser was upset, writing of Reagan's actions in her memoir: "Hope for thousands of Americans and people around the world sat gathering dust in some forgotten corner of some forgotten room."[74][79]
Post-presidency
Reagan's second term as president ended on January 20, 1989, when his Vice President
Timeline of the Reagan administration's AIDS response
Key
No highlight | Notable AIDS related event |
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Green highlight | Events in the Reagan administration |
Yellow highlight | AIDS policies put into place by the Reagan administration |
Red highlight | Major congressional actions on AIDS |
Timeline
Date | Event |
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January 20, 1981 | Ronald Reagan is inaugurated as President of the United States. |
Mid-1981 | Doctors in New York and Los Angeles first identify the disease that will come to be known as AIDS. At the time, the only known patients are gay men.[13] |
December 31, 1981 | A total of 160 Americans are estimated to have died from AIDS complications.[33] |
October 15, 1982 | White House Press Secretary Larry Speakes fields a question about HIV/AIDS, the first time anybody from the Reagan administration had publicly acknowledged the disease, though Speakes's answer was dismissive.[91] |
December 31, 1982 | A total of 625 Americans are estimated to have died from AIDS complications.[33] |
April 12, 1983 | Secretary of Health and Human Services, tells Congress that no additional AIDS funding is necessary to deal with the crisis.[36]
|
May 18, 1983 | Congress passes the first specific funding for AIDS research and treatment, bundling it in a Public Health Emergency Trust Fund alongside funding for |
June 13, 1983 | Larry Speakes says in a press conference that the President was "briefed on the AIDS situation a number of months ago".[92] |
June 21, 1983 | Reagan and staff from the National Gay Task Force to discuss concerns about the AIDS epidemic; the meeting goes poorly, however, and Reagan does not meet with the activists again.[25]
|
August 1983 | Reagan meets with a number of religious conservative activists, who suggest framing AIDS as a consequence of the "moral failings" of homosexuality.[25] |
December 31, 1983 | A total of 2,085 Americans are estimated to have died from AIDS complications.[33] |
April 23, 1984 | Secretary of Health and Human Services Margaret Heckler announces at a press conference that an American scientist, Robert Gallo, has discovered the probable cause of AIDS, a retrovirus that will come to be known as HIV.[37] |
December 11, 1984 | Larry Speakes, in responding to a question from Lester Kinsolving, states that he has not heard Reagan express any thoughts or opinions on the AIDS epidemic.[19] |
December 31, 1984 | A total of 5,607 Americans are estimated to have died from AIDS complications.[33] |
February 1985 | The Reagan administration proposes a $10 million cut to AIDS research funding for the following fiscal year.[43] |
July 25, 1985 | Rock Hudson, a prominent movie star and acquaintance of the Reagans, releases a public statement announcing that he is dying of AIDS.[42] |
September 17, 1985 | President Reagan publicly acknowledges AIDS for the first time in his response to a reporter's question.[93] |
October 2, 1985 | Congress approves a budget of $190 million for AIDS research, $70 million more than the amount requested by the Reagan administration and nearly double the previous year's spending.[94] |
December 31, 1985 | A total of 12,598 Americans are estimated to have died from AIDS complications.[33] |
February 6, 1986 | Reagan declares a cure for AIDS to be a "top health priority" and orders C. Everett Koop to put together a major report on the subject.[54] |
October 22, 1986 | The Koop report is released, outlining the causes of AIDS and advocating for comprehensive sex education to stymie its spread.[13] |
December 31, 1986 | A total of 24,753 Americans are estimated to have died from AIDS complications.[33] |
March 19, 1987 | AZT is approved by the FDA, becoming the first approved treatment for AIDS.[6]
|
May 31, 1987 | Reagan gives a speech, his first on the subject of AIDS, at an event for the American Foundation for AIDS Research and is booed by the attending crowd.[13]
|
June 24, 1987 | President Reagan forms the President's Commission on the HIV Epidemic to investigate the AIDS pandemic.[37] |
December 31, 1987 | A total of 41,214 Americans are estimated to have died from AIDS complications.[33] |
May 26, 1988 | Under a mandate from Congress, deliveries of Understanding AIDS, a brochure derived from the Koop report, begin to every household in the United States.[62] |
June 24, 1988 | The President's Commission on the HIV Epidemic releases its final report, which is critical of the government's response to the AIDS crisis to that point and suggests a number of policy changes, including AIDS education starting in Kindergarten and a national law that would ban discrimination against people with AIDS.[13] |
August 2, 1988 | The Reagan administration announces a 10-point "action plan" to implement suggestions in the HIV Commission's report, though it stops short of some of the report's major suggestions, including a national ban on discrimination against those with AIDS.[78] |
December 31, 1988 | A total of 62,418 Americans are estimated to have died from AIDS complications.[33] |
January 20, 1989 | Ronald Reagan leaves office. |
Legacy
Through the lack of both policy and financial support, the United States Centers for Disease Control (CDC) was severely handicapped during the early years of the AIDS epidemic. Senior staff of the Reagan Administration did not understand the essential role of Government in disease prevention. Although CDC clearly documented the dangers of HIV and AIDS early in the epidemic, refusal by the White House to deliver prevention programs then certainly allowed HIV to become more widely seeded.
—
With few exceptions, Reagan's response to AIDS has been criticized by LGBT and AIDS activists,[95][13][96][97][98] epidemiologists,[99][33] and progressives.[100][101][102] The policies implemented by the Reagan administration are often characterized as too little and too late in the pandemic.[10] Some have accused Reagan of being motivated by homophobia to not respond to the pandemic,[103][95][104] though this assessment is controversial, with some commentators citing other factors such as political inconvenience or ignorance as the cause.[95][11][10][98]
Some conservatives, as well as a small number of liberals, have defended the Reagan administration's response to the AIDS pandemic. Some defenders cite Reagan's opposition to some anti-LGBT measures, such as the
Gay rights movement
The Reagan administration's perceived neglect of the AIDS crisis ignited a wave of LGBT advocacy.[107] Scholars of the topic, including Ilan Meyer, have written that the AIDS crisis "raised the stakes" for LGBT people to secure rights and access to healthcare.[108] The crisis also forged new solidarity between men who have sex with men and women who have sex with women, as the experience in organizing queer women had gained in fighting for reproductive rights were crucial in facilitating AIDS advocacy groups for queer men.[108]
LGBT-centered AIDS advocacy organizations such as
54% of people with AIDS in NYC are Black or Hispanic... AIDS is the No. 1 killer of women between the ages of 24 and 29 in NYC... By 1991, more people will have died of AIDS than in the entire Vietnam War. What is Reagan’s real policy on AIDS? Genocide of all Non-Whites, Non-males and Non-heterosexuals?... Silence=Death[110]
The
In popular culture
On April 21, 1985, playwright Larry Kramer debuted his autobiographical play The Normal Heart, a major subject of which is the lack of attention given to AIDS by the American public and the Reagan administration.[93] The play was adapted into a 2014 film of the same name starring Mark Ruffalo.[93][95] Randy Shilts's book And the Band Played On was also adapted into a 1994 HBO television film of the same name, starring Matthew Modine as Don Francis. The television series Pose, which debuted in 2018, is set in part during the Reagan years, and deals with the AIDS crisis in New York City's ball culture of the 1980s and 1990s. The show's characters are critical of Reagan and his response to AIDS; in the first season episode "The Fever", the character Prayerful "Pray" Tell, a gay man, says of Reagan and the AIDS crisis: "I know that Ronald Reagan will not say the word AIDS. Health insurance will not cover any treatment. The world wants us dead."[115]
The 1993 Pulitzer Prize winning play Angels in America and its subsequent 2003 television adaptation represent the AIDS crisis during the 1980s through symbolism and metaphor; both criticize the Reagan administration for its perceived inaction on AIDS and homophobia.[102][116] Reagan ally and gay man Roy Cohn is a central character in the narrative, who, like his real life counterpart, eventually dies of AIDS, and the work also features other characters who work in government and the Reagan administration.[102]
In 2003, the
On March 11, 2016, during the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries, at the funeral of Nancy Reagan, candidate and future Democratic Party nominee Hillary Clinton credited Ronald and Nancy Reagan with starting a national conversation on AIDS "when before nobody would talk about it, nobody wanted to do anything about it".[100][117] Her remarks were criticized as an inaccurate characterization of the Reagans' response to AIDS by LGBT and AIDS advocates as well as her primary opponent, Bernie Sanders.[100][117][101] She later apologized for her remarks.[100]
See also
Notes
- ^ This is not true. HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, can be transmitted via a number of fluids, but saliva is not one of them.[22] The idea that HIV/AIDS could be transmitted through saliva was, however, a common misconception at the time.[23]
- ^ The misconception which is being referenced here, either derisively or out of genuine misunderstanding, is that HIV can be spread by drinking out of the same water fountain as an infected person.[23]
- ^ Nominated by Dick Cheney.[69]
- ^ Nominated by himself.[69]
- ^ Referring to gay men.
- ^ San Francisco is famously a very LGBT-friendly city, and at the time was in the throes of one of the country's deadliest AIDS outbreaks.[81]
References
- ^ Tumulty 2021a, p. 411.
- ^ Pasteur Institute 2023.
- ^ Shampo & Kyle 2002.
- ^ Sabin 2013.
- ^ Shilts 1987, p. 597.
- ^ a b Corbett 2010.
- ^ HRC 2017.
- ^ CDC Fact Sheet: Gay Men and HIV 2022.
- ^ CDC Brief: Transgender People and HIV 2022.
- ^ a b c d e Ambinder 2015.
- ^ a b c d e Evans 2018.
- ^ Harrity 2016.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Tumulty 2021b.
- ^ Djupe & Olson 2003, p. 99.
- ^ a b Miller & Wattenberg 1984.
- ^ Graham 1997.
- ^ Williams 2020, p. x.
- ^ Schudel 2018.
- ^ a b Lopez 2016a.
- ^ Harmon 2015.
- ^ a b Lawson 2015.
- ^ CDC 2022.
- ^ a b Kaplan 2022.
- ^ a b Brier 2009, p. 83.
- ^ a b c d e f g Petro 2015, p. 67.
- ^ a b Tumulty 2021a, p. 418.
- ^ Washington Post 1987.
- ^ a b Brier 2009, p. 84.
- ^ FRONTLINE 2006.
- ^ Kirchick 2022, p. 577: "A Los Angeles Times poll reported that more than half of American adults supported quarantining AIDS patients, and a conservative pollster found that a third of the public supported quarantining all male homosexuals, a distinction, apparently in the minds of many, without a difference. The antipathy was particularly strong among evangelicals, 78% of whom voted for Reagan in 1984."
- ^ Shilts 1987, p. 495.
- ^ a b c d e Green 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Francis 2012.
- ^ Shilts 1987, p. 143.
- ^ Shilts 1987, p. 186.
- ^ a b c PBS 2006.
- ^ a b c d e hiv.gov HIV/AIDS Timeline.
- ^ a b Shilts 1987, p. 214.
- ^ a b c Tumulty 2021a, p. 415.
- ^ Shilts 1987, p. 456.
- ^ Shilts 1987, p. 544.
- ^ a b The New York Times 1985.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Geidner 2015.
- ^ Shilts 1987, p. 573.
- ^ a b Shilts 1987, p. 577.
- ^ Tumulty 2021a, p. 417.
- ^ Kirchick 2022, p. 574.
- ^ a b Shilts 1987, p. 585.
- ^ Shilts 1987, p. 588.
- ^ Ronald Reagan Diary for 24 July 1985.
- ^ a b c The New York Times 1989.
- ^ a b c Kirchick 2022, p. 573.
- ^ a b c Presidential Press Conference on 17 September 1985.
- ^ a b c Weinraub 1986.
- ^ a b c d Tumulty 2021a, p. 419.
- ^ Brier 2009, p. 88.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Boodman 1987.
- ^ a b c d e Tumulty 2021a, p. 420.
- ^ a b c d Profiles in Science 2019.
- ^ a b Petro 2015, p. 72.
- ^ Brier 2009, p. 90.
- ^ a b The New York Times 1988.
- ^ a b c d Tumulty 2021a, p. 422.
- ^ a b Tumulty 2021a, p. 412.
- ^ a b c d Tumulty 2021a, p. 424.
- ^ Reagan 1987.
- ^ Ronald Reagan Diary for 31 May 1987.
- ^ National Archives – Reagan Executive Orders of 1987.
- ^ a b c d e f g Kirchick 2022, p. 616.
- ^ a b c Tumulty 2021a, p. 426.
- ^ a b c Kirchick 2022, p. 617.
- ^ a b c d Brier 2009, p. 95.
- ^ Report of the Presidential Commission on the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Epidemic 1988.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Tumulty 2021a, p. 429.
- ^ Report of the Presidential Commission on the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Epidemic 1988: "Age appropriate, comprehensive health education programs in our nation's schools, in kindergarten through grade twelve, should be a national priority. "
- ^ Report of the Presidential Commission on the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Epidemic 1988, p. 126.
- ^ Report of the Presidential Commission on the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Epidemic 1988, p. 78-80.
- ^ a b c Orlando Sentinel 1988.
- ^ a b Glaser & Palmer 1992, p. 133.
- ^ Tumulty 2021a, p. 620.
- ^ Katz 1997.
- ^ a b Tumulty 2021a, p. 414.
- ^ Kirchick 2022, p. 575: "During a meeting with his top national security officials to discuss a psychological warfare operation against the Libyan strongman Muammar Gaddafi, Reagan allegedly made a joke about his garish wardrobe. "Why not invite Gaddafi to San Francisco, he likes to dress up so much," the president said. "Why don't we give him AIDS!" Secretary of State George Shultz interjected. "Others at the table laughed," according to a report by Bob Woodward in the Washington Post."
- ^ a b c Tumulty 2021a, p. 421.
- ^ a b Tumulty 2021a, p. 427.
- ^ a b Tumulty 2021a, p. 428.
- ^ Glaser & Palmer 1992, p. 131.
- ^ Glaser & Palmer 1992, p. 131-132.
- ^ a b Tumulty 2021a, p. 430.
- ^ Higgins 2019.
- ^ Gibson 2015.
- ^ White House Press Briefing 1983.
- ^ a b c King 2020.
- ^ Shepard 1985.
- ^ a b c d e f Mason 2014.
- ^ San Francisco AIDS Foundation 2011.
- ^ Davis 2022.
- ^ a b La Ganga 2016.
- ^ a b Fauci 2012.
- ^ a b c d Brydum 2016.
- ^ a b Villarreal 2016.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Rich 2003.
- ^ Kirchick 2022, p. 556.
- ^ a b c Murdock 2012.
- ^ Kirchick 2022, p. 619: "By contrast, in Great Britain, Reagan's conservative ally Margaret Thatcher implemented a robustly funded public health awareness campaign, and the incidence of HIV infection was one-tenth that of the United States."
- ^ a b Huber 2016.
- ^ Huneke 2022, p. 179.
- ^ a b Martos, Wilson & Meyer 2017.
- ^ a b Fitzsimons 2018.
- ^ a b Met Museum 2013.
- ^ Finkelstein 2017.
- ^ a b Ghaziani 2008, p. 168.
- ^ a b c Kirchick 2022, p. 620.
- ^ a b Kirchick 2022, p. 619.
- ^ Pose: "The Fever" 2018.
- ^ Klemm 2007.
- ^ a b Lopez 2016b.
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Further reading
- Bell, Jonathan (2020). "Between Private and Public: AIDS, Health Care Capitalism, and the Politics of Respectability in 1980s America". Journal of American Studies. 54 (1): 159–183. .
- Brier, Jennifer (2015). "Reagan and AIDS". A Companion to Ronald Reagan (1 ed.). Wiley. pp. 221–237. ISBN 978-0-470-65504-7.
- Burk, Tara (2015). "Radical Distribution: AIDS Cultural Activism in New York City, 1986-1992". Space and Culture. 18 (4): 436–449. .
- Schulman, Sarah (2018) [1994]. My American History: Lesbian and Gay Life During the Reagan and Bush Years. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-34904-8.