Władysław III of Poland

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For other people with the same name, see Ladislaus III (disambiguation).

Władysław III
Roman Catholic

Władysław III of Poland

King of Poland and Supreme Duke[b] of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from 1434 as well as King of Hungary and Croatia from 1440 until his death at the Battle of Varna. He was the eldest son of Władysław II Jagiełło (Jogaila) and the Lithuanian noblewoman Sophia of Halshany
.

Władysław's succeeded his father shortly before turning ten in 1434 and was, therefore, deemed unfit to rule until coming of age. Cardinal Zbigniew Oleśnicki acted as regent and a temporary provisores council executed power in the king's name. However, Władysław's legitimacy to the crown was contested by Lesser Polish nobles favouring the candidacy of Siemowit V of Masovia, who was of Piast lineage. In the aftermath of the coronation, Spytko III of Melsztyn accused Oleśnicki, the council and the Catholic Church of exploiting the king's youth to hold authority. A sympathiser with the Czech Hussites, Spytko was killed at the Battle of Grotniki in 1439, thus ending the hostilities.

Władysław simultaneously faced the effects of the

Teutonic Knights began supporting Švitrigaila and the Livonian Order in a military struggle against Poland and Sigismund Kęstutaitis of Lithuania in 1434, shortly after Władysław assumed the throne. Consequently, the king and the Polish Royal Council, the curia regis, renewed their war efforts by fortifying the borderland regions and sending an army to Lithuania, which was engulfed in a civil war since 1432. Švitrigaila, the Livonians and their allies were ultimately defeated at the Battle of Wiłkomierz, and Władysław forced the Peace of Brześć Kujawski on the Teutonic State
in December 1435 which curtailed Teutonic influence in East-Central Europe.

The policy of the Kingdom of Poland under Władysław and Oleśnicki was to reclaim lost territories such as

Habsburgs, the imminent Ottoman advance into Hungary and Elizabeth's sudden death solidified Władysław's legitimacy to the Hungarian throne. Ruling much of Southeastern and Central Europe
, Władysław became compelled in confronting the Ottoman Empire.

With the Turkish grip over the Balkans weakened in the aftermath of the Hungarian–Ottoman War (1437–1442), the papacy and papal legate Julian Cesarini urged Władysław to launch the Crusade of Varna. After initial successes, the outnumbered Christian forces engaged in a decisive battle at Varna, where Władysław was killed in a heroic cavalry charge against Sultan Murad II. His body was never recovered and its disappearance led to numerous survival theories or legends, none of which have been confirmed. Władysław's legacy in Poland and Hungary is divisive, yet Władysław remains a notable figure in countries like Bulgaria which were under Ottoman domination. He was succeeded in Poland by his younger brother Casimir IV, and in Hungary-Croatia by his rival Ladislaus V the Posthumous.

Early life, 1424–1434

Childhood, 1424–1431

See also: Jagiellonian dynasty
Baptism of Władysław III (1425) at Wawel Cathedral in Kraków as imagined by Jan Matejko.

Władysław was born in

Primate of Poland.[3] It took place in the presence of Andrzej Łaskarz Laskary, Bishop of Poznań and Zbigniew Oleśnicki, Bishop of Kraków as well as statesmen and royal emissaries from the surrounding realms.[3][4] The ceremony was unequivocally grandiose; the most probable day of the baptism is 18 February, though this continues to be contested by historians and various sources.[5]

In 1427, the

magnates to ensure the succession for his sons, the opposing faction opted for Frederick II of Brandenburg, who was betrothed to Hedwig Jagiellon, Jogaila's daughter by his second wife.[7] However, the conspiracy was resolved by the death of the princess in December 1431, rumoured to have been poisoned by Sophia.[7]

Opposition and Cardinal Oleśnicki, 1432–1434

Zbigniew Oleśnicki, seen kneeling to the left, was instrumental in securing Władysław's right to the throne.

From a young age, Władysław was surrounded by advisors loyal to

Council of Basel, but decided to remain in Poland and usurp the role of interrex.[9] He subsequently convened an assembly in Poznań with the assistance of Chancellor Jan Taszka Koniecpolski, and called for the nobles of Greater Poland to warrant Władysław's right to the crown.[10] This arbitrary behaviour displayed by the assembly vexed the nobility of Lesser Poland, who were outmanoeuvred and excluded from the vote.[10]

There was growing antagonism in the demesne and the challengers feared that crowning a young and inexperienced king would invest Oleśnicki with too much power over the affairs of state.[11] Others repudiated a son of formerly-pagan Jogaila on the Polish throne and yearned for a living descendant of the Piast dynasty. The candidacy of Siemowit V remained a considerable threat to Władysław, especially that Siemowit was of royal Piast lineage and a member of a branch which ruled the Duchy of Masovia since the Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth in the 12th century.[12]

Many opponents also attempted to counter the power of the

Protestant movement, Dziersław Rytwiański [pl], and Spytko III of Melsztyn, a supporter of pro-Hussite military expeditions led by Sigismund Korybut to Bohemia in the years 1422–1427.[10][13] They received clandestine sponsorship from influential magnates and nobles from Lesser Poland, who persuaded Oleśnicki to delay the coronation until 25 July 1434.[10] This granted the opposition additional time to establish an independent assembly on 13 July in Opatów, where forthcoming actions were to be discussed.[14] Oleśnicki, having discovered their intent, arrived to the proceedings unannounced and successfully questioned its purpose after which the council hastily dissolved.[14] Negotiations were held in Kraków prior to 25 July with the dignitaries sent by Sigismund Kęstutaitis and Spytko, who attempted to obstruct Władysław's accession.[14] Jan Głowacz Oleśnicki [pl], Crown Marshal of Poland and the brother of Zbigniew Oleśnicki, called for a decisive vote which ended the dispute.[15]

Reign, 1434–1444

Coronation, 1434

Young Władysław III depicted in a 15th-century prayerbook. The Polish White Eagle can be seen in the shield.

Władysław was crowned at Wawel Cathedral on 25 July 1434 by the elderly Wojciech Jastrzębiec.

anointment and the handing over of Polish royal insignia.[18] This act was to be seen as submission to the privileges of nobles; the king-elect's fulfillment of the elites' requirements, not hereditary rights, was a condition for obtaining the throne in the Kingdom of Poland.[17] Furthermore, the crown jewels were given to the officials, rather than being placed at the altar, implying Władysław's minority and the officials' active participation in the coronation.[17] The act in which Władysław undertakes signum crucis with a sword in the direction of the four corners of the world was abandoned.[17]

Chronicler

Masovian princes concerning the order of precedence in the royal procession and on sitting arrangements.[19]

Regency, 1434–1438

Shortly after the coronation, senior nobles held both covert and open conventions to discuss the possibility of instituting a

regency as the king was still a minor and could not govern.[20] Duke Siemowit, who was staying in the capital of Kraków at the time, remained a valid contender for the role of regent or caretaker due to his personal qualities and rank, however, the idea was soon dismissed; many of the noble lords believed that Siemowit could usurp and seize the crown for himself than remain an inferior subject to the boy.[20] Queen Sophia's attempts to be named regent, in accordance with her late husband's instructions, also failed and the general indecisiveness caused the apex of oligarch influence in medieval Poland.[21] As compromise, a regency council was formed comprising regional governors called the provisores.[22] Długosz noted three members, each selected for merit and "wisdom",[d] which was possibly aimed at curtailing Zbigniew Oleśnicki's influence.[22][23] Nonetheless, Oleśnicki retained considerable control over Władysław's upbringing.[21]

It is believed that Władysław did not have a decisive voice in politics and the situation did not change even after the Sejm (Polish parliament) had gathered in Piotrków in 1438, and declared the fourteen-year-old king to have attained his majority.[24]

Civil war in Lithuania, 1434–1438

Further information: Polish–Teutonic Wars
Władysław portrayed in a prayerbook held at the Bodleian Library in Oxford, 15th century.

Władysław faced certain challenges early in his reign, in particular the inherited situation in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was precarious and the

Teutonic Knights, the war resumed when Władysław became king. The situation swiftly transformed into a diplomatic struggle for Władysław and the Poles, who sought to turn Lithuanian nobles against Švitrigaila and have him ousted.[25]

A Polish retinue of approximately 4,000 men under Jakub Kobylański assisted the Lithuanians headed by Sigismund Kęstutaitis and Michael Žygimantaitis; their joint army defeated Švitrigaila and his allies, Sigismund Korybut and the Livonian Order, on 1 September 1435 at the Battle of Wiłkomierz.[28] Švitrigaila fled eastward, but eventually lost the support of the Ruthenians residing in the Grand Duchy and went into exile to Moldavia in 1438, thus ending civil war.[26] However, unrest re-emerged when Sigismund Kęstutaitis was assassinated on 20 March 1440 and Władysław's younger brother, Casimir, was proclaimed Grand Duke by Jonas Goštautas and the Lithuanian Council of Lords on 29 June 1440.[29][30] This was met with hostility at the Polish court, especially that Casimir was underage and that the Poles hoped for a vicegerent that would submit to Poland.[30] Regardless of the outcome, Władysław continued to use the title of Supreme Duke of Lithuania until death under the conditions of the 1413 Union of Horodło.[31][32]

The battle also proved momentous in combating the Livonian Order as its

Livonian Confederation agreement from 4 December 1435 officially terminated its crusading character, and a formal peace treaty was signed on 31 December 1435 in Brześć Kujawski whereby the Teutonic and Livonian Orders pledged not to intrude or disturb the internal affairs of both Poland and Lithuania.[2][34] This act concluded the Polish–Teutonic War (1431–1435).[34] Moreover, any association between the knights and the Pope or the Holy Roman Emperor would violate this treaty.[35] Due to his youth, Władysław did not engage directly in peace talks and the negotiations were predominantly undertaken by diplomats or the clergy.[36]

Domestic and foreign policy, 1438–1440

Further information: Hussite Wars
A map illustrating the borders of Poland, Lithuania and Prussia, and the regions of Silesia and Pomerania.

The successive years were marked by the extirpation of Polish Hussites under the

death warrant.[40] Spytko was ultimately killed at the Battle of Grotniki.[40][41] His corpse pierced with arrows laid bare in the field for three days, however, Władysław personally ordered Spytko's body to be returned to his widow and restored the family's noble status and privileges.[41][42]

The court also devised the return of territories once lost, most notably the southern

Holy Roman Emperor and were wary of taking up arms.[43] He also dedicated himself to subtler diplomatic measures when addressing the issue of Silesia, a large historical region within the Bohemian Crown, but was unwilling to support the Hussites militarily against Sigismund of Luxembourg and his son-in-law, Albert II of Germany.[43] The priority was diverted towards stabilising domestic affairs as well as maintaining Poland's status as a great power and a pillar of the Catholic Church in East-Central Europe.[43]

The union with Lithuania remained impregnable and a dynastic union with the Kingdom of Hungary was to be formed as Sigismund had no male heirs.[43] The Polish Sejm and statesmen[e] hoped that, by marrying Władysław to one of Sigismund's grand-daughters, Poland could secure his accession in Hungary and foist Jagiellonian rule there.[43] This would restore a union of Hungary and Poland not seen since the reign of Louis I of Anjou (1370–1382).[43] The union would allow Poland to re-negotiate disputed territories between the Poles and the Hungarians, including Halych (later constituting Galicia) and Moldavia.[43] In response, Poland would propose a military alliance and vow the expulsion of the Ottoman Turks from Hungarian lands.[43]

King of Hungary and Croatia, 1440

Further information: Central Europe and Ottoman wars in Europe
The Holy Crown of Hungary was hidden from Władysław by Elizabeth of Luxembourg to prevent his coronation as King of Hungary.

In October 1439, Albert II died leaving the Austrian, Bohemian and Hungarian thrones unoccupied.[44] His only son, born in February 1440, became known as Ladislaus the Posthumous.[44] Ladislaus' claim to the Duchy of Austria was acknowledged in accordance with Albert's testament.[45][46] Under the influence and pressure of Oldřich II of Rosenberg, the Catholic nobles were also inclined to endorse Ladislaus' hereditary right to Bohemia.[47][46] Conversely, the Hungarians were not willing to pass his candidacy and began dialogue with the Poles.[46] In early January 1440, the Hungarian Estates rejected the deceased king's testament at an assembly in Buda that would place the regency in the hands of Frederick III Habsburg.[44]

Due to the general animosity towards the

Habsburg dynasty and the impending Ottoman threat, the Hungarians could not accept an infant as king and turned to Poland.[44] Ladislaus' widowed mother, Queen Elizabeth of Luxembourg, was desperate to halt this and sent intermediaries to persuade the Hungarians to terminate all negotiations with Władysław.[46] Contrary to her efforts, the Hungarian nobles proved resolute and elected Władysław king on 8 March 1440.[48] Prior to his election, Władysław vowed to marry Elizabeth and protect her infant son's interests in Austria and Bohemia.[48] Simultaneously, Władysław was made King of Croatia as the Croatian dominion was in a personal union with Hungary since 1102.[49]

Elizabeth did not approve of the Estates' election and on 15 May 1440 she had her son crowned with the

crusade.[51] Although still young and king solely by title, Władysław became deeply involved in the struggle against the Ottomans, having been brought up in the standard of a pious Christian
monarch.

Discord and unrest, 1440–1442

Further information: List of wars involving Hungary
John Hunyadi, who supported Władysław's claim to the Hungarian throne and aided him militarily. Depiction from the Chronica Hungarorum, 1488.

Shortly after Władysław's accession the conflict with the supporters of Elizabeth deepened.[52] The western and northern parts of the country remained on the side of the queen and opposing magnates, chiefly the Counts of Celje (Cilli), the Garai family and Dénes Szécsi, Archbishop of Esztergom.[52] In turn, the eastern regions and Transylvania upheld Władysław and his partisans, among them John Hunyadi who became a leading political and military figure in Hungary.[53]

In order to assert her claim, Elizabeth had to maintain the wealthy mining counties in what now constitutes

mercenaries from Bohemia commanded by John Jiskra.[54] Jiskra undertook a quick campaign and occupied much of the fortresses and defensive posts in northern Hungary, often with the support of local populations and devotees that held Jiskra in high regard due to his fight for religious freedoms.[54] As a benefactor to the mercenaries, Elizabeth had to pawn the Holy Crown and transfer tutelage over her newborn son to Frederick III.[54] However, this proved insufficient to fund the war against Władysław; she was then forced to handover her privately-owned Austrian estates and the Hungarian County of Sopron to the Habsburgs in late 1440 and early 1441.[54] This conduct alienated many of the lords that initially supported Elizabeth's cause, including Nicholas of Ilok, Ban of Croatia, who switched sides and allied himself with Władysław and John Hunyadi.[54]

The western territories as well as some 70 fortresses under Ulrich II, Count of Celje in modern-day Austria, Croatia and Slovenia remained stalwart and loyal to the queen.[54] Before the end of 1440, Hunyadi attacked Győr but was unable to take the garrisoned city.[55] He was, however, successful in capturing local townships and villages around Buda and Székesfehérvár to prevent the escape of nobles and designated traitors.[55] This proved paramount when Ulrich II made an attempt to flee to Bratislava (Pozsony); he was caught by a Polish detachment and subsequently imprisoned at Władysław's behest.[55] Concurrently, Ladislaus Garai instigated a rebellion in the south.[56] Hunyadi, together with Nicholas of Ilok, annihilated Garai's army at Bátaszék on 10 September 1440.[56] In January 1441, Ulrich was released from captivity, pledged an oath of loyalty to Władysław and freed the hostages held by his troops.[56]

Elizabeth prolonged her resistance until December 1442, when a peace treaty was signed at Győr under the auspices of Cardinal Julian Cesarini.[57] Elizabeth died not long after meeting Władysław and exchanging gifts; her supporters claimed that she was poisoned on his orders to prevent their marriage.[58] Cesarini had the treaty ratified by Frederick under the pressure of Pope Eugene, though Frederick abstained from doing so until May 1444.[58] Due to the internal unrest, Hungary became vulnerable militarily and was severely weakened for the Turkish campaign.[57]

Crusade against the Muslim Ottomans, 1443–1444

Further information: Crusade of Varna
Władysław III at the Battle of Varna, as imagined by Jan Matejko.

The prelude to the crusade began when the Turks were defeated in the

Ialomița River.[61]

Throughout the autumn of 1442, Cesarini and the

River Danube, thus leaving the Ottoman main army caught in Anatolia.[62] Cesarini, acting as papal legate and gathering support, disseminated slogans and propaganda that would incite the Christian army to act.[63] Moreover, Italian humanist Francesco Filelfo wrote a personal letter to Władysław, describing him in Latin as the propugnaculum, or the "bulwark of Christianity".[64] On the other hand, Vlad II Dracul tried to dissuade Władysław from waging war against the Ottomans.[65] Nevertheless, Vlad Dracul provided 7,000 (according to some accounts 4,000)[66] horsemen under the command of his son, Mircea, to fight against the Ottomans.[65]

Władysław at Varna, as imagined by Stanisław Chlebowski.

On 15 April 1444, at the

Asia Minor by this time and the fleet was tasked with preventing re-entry by holding the strait against him.[69]

In August, a Polish assembly at

Byzantine emperor.[70] The Byzantines were ecstatic of the news brought by Cesarini, as were the Genoese colonies and Pera (Galata).[70] Cyriacus also distributed letters to Neapolitan nobility and to Alfonso V of Aragon, urging them to join the campaign.[70] The victory of Jean de Lastic and his Knights Hospitaller in the Siege of Rhodes contributed to the general euphoria surrounding the crusade.[70]

In mid-August 1444, the

Bosphorus whilst the Christian fleet was stalled due to adverse winds and the Venetians did not make an effort to prevent this.[73] Scholar Poggio Bracciolini appraised this as the true cause of the crusade's early failure.[73] Genoese merchants and sailors were also accused of corruption and accepting bribes from Murad.[73] According to witnesses, the Ottoman troops outnumbered the combined Christian forces and quickly marched to the Black Sea without a delay.[74]

Death at Varna and succession, 1444

Further information: Battle of Varna
Imaginary Ottoman miniature depicting Murad II and Władysław III's beheading, held at Topkapı Palace.

The Venetian treachery placed the large Ottoman army of around 60,000 men in proximity to the unsuspecting 16,000 crusaders, almost outnumbering the Christians by three to one.

Janissaries restrained him.[75][76]

Hunyadi is purported to have proposed that the Christian left assists the right flank to move the Turks out of position, and stated that "the son of Osman's army shall be defeated".[77] The Ottoman troops under Hadım Şehabeddin of Rumelia began to break and some fled the battle, though the Turkish resistance was fierce.[77] One of the crusaders, Andreas de Pallatio, later wrote in his memoirs that Władysław seized the initiative on the Christian right flank and tore into Şehabeddin's ranks like "a new Caesar", pushing the Rumelians up the valley's slope.[77] Many of the novice yet still elite Janissaries and azebs were driven back.[78] Pallatio also notes that the size of Murad's army was too great to counter and it seemed as if the Christian offensive barely inflicted any major casualties.[79] Władysław's men quickly became exhausted, with many wounded by arrows and battered, including Hunyadi.[79] In spite of this, the majority of the Ottoman army either fled or was dead.[80] Consequently, Murad decided to seek refuge in his fortified encampment in the rear.[80]

Facing desperate circumstances and seeing Hunyadi's struggle against the Rumelian

brunette.[84] Disheartened by the death of the king, the Hungarian army fled the battlefield and the remainder surrendered. On his return, Hunyadi tried frantically to salvage the king's body; neither Władysław's body nor his armour were ever found.[85]

Władysław was succeeded in Poland by his younger brother, Duke Casimir IV of Lithuania, in 1447, after a three-year interregnum.[86] In Hungary, he was succeeded by his former rival, the child-king Ladislaus the Posthumous.[86]

Appearance and personal life

According to 19th-century sources based on medieval chronicles, Władysław was of medium height, with a

swarthy (olive) complexion, dark hair, dark eyes, and possessed a graceful gaze.[87] There are no other accounts disclosing his physical appearance.[88] He did not indulge in overeating or excessive drinking, and was a person of extreme patience and piety.[87] Furthermore, the king was known to be of strong character and merciful to his foes, when required.[87]

Władysław had no children and did not marry. Contemporary sources suggest that he was

sexuality.[90] Długosz did not specify the details behind this, stating "too subject to his carnal desires" and "he did not abandon his lewd and despicable habits".[90] On the other hand, Długosz did note later that "No age has ever seen and will never see a more Catholic and holy ruler who, according to his highest goodness, has never harmed any Christian. [...] Finally, like a holy king and a second angel on Earth, he lived an unmarried and virgin life at home and during the war".[91]

Legacy

A cenotaph featuring Władysław's effigy at Wawel Cathedral. The king's body was never found and his tomb remains empty.

Władysław's legacy as King of Hungary was tarnished in existing records by the

Habsburgs; the largely unrealistic picture of his reign presented in the Annales chronicles were constructed as a consistent polemic comprising the allegations of what is described as "Habsburg propaganda". Furthermore, Władysław's claim to Hungary was deemed illegitimate and he was often portrayed as a usurper, who unsuccessfully launched a crusade against the Turks. Rumours also spread that Władysław had Elizabeth of Luxembourg
poisoned as her death occurred suddenly after their meeting in December 1442.

Following his death, Władysław III was commemorated in many songs and poems.[92]

A main boulevard and residential district in Varna are named after Władysław. In 1935 a park-museum, Władysław Warneńczyk, opened in Varna, with a symbolic cenotaph built atop of an ancient Thracian mound tomb. There had been also a football team named after Vladislav in Varna, present day its inheritor is known as PFC Cherno More Varna.

Legend of survival

St. Joachim and St. Anne Meeting at the Golden Gate.

According to a

Saint Joachim meeting Saint Anne at the Golden Gate on a painting by Master of the Adoration of Machico (Mestre da Adoração de Machico) in the beginning of the 16th century.[93]

According to the tradition, he felt his defeat at Varna was a warning sign from God (since he declared war on a false pretext, violating the truce with the Ottoman Muslims). Thus, he wandered as a pilgrim, seeking forgiveness, which he found in Jerusalem. For the rest of his life he would deny his identity. A delegation of Polish monks went to Madeira to question him and certified he was in fact the long lost king, now living in secrecy. He declined their suggestion to ascend the Polish throne again.

According to another controversial version of the legend, promoted by Manuel da Silva Rosa, Władysław (as Henrique Alemão) was the biological father of Christopher Columbus.

Gallery

  • Gallery
  • The Royal Seal of Władysław III, 1438.
    The Royal Seal of Władysław III, 1438.
  • Coat of arms featuring the symbols of Poland, Lithuania and Hungary.
    Coat of arms featuring the symbols of Poland, Lithuania and Hungary.
  • The Memorial of the Battle in Varna, built on an ancient Thracian mound tomb, bearing the name of the fallen king.
    The Memorial of the Battle in Varna, built on an ancient Thracian mound tomb, bearing the name of the fallen king.
  • A more accurate portrayal in the Chronica Polonorum, 1519.
    A more accurate portrayal in the
    Chronica Polonorum
    , 1519.
  • Imaginary portrait from Thuróczi János' Chronica Hungarorum (Władysław was only 20 when he died).
    Imaginary portrait from Thuróczi János' Chronica Hungarorum (Władysław was only 20 when he died).
  • Drawing by Jan Matejko, a 19th-century imaginary depiction based on historical accounts.
    Drawing by Jan Matejko, a 19th-century imaginary depiction based on historical accounts.
  • Church, Madalena do Mar, Madeira, hypothetical burial place of Władysław III.
    Church, Madalena do Mar, Madeira, hypothetical burial place of Władysław III.

See also

  • History of Poland (1385–1569)
  • List of Polish monarchs

Notes

  1. ^ Also known in English as Vladislaus, Wladislaus, Wladislas, Ladislaus or Ladislas.
    Hungarian: I. Ulászló;
    Slovak: Vladislav I;
    Czech: Vladislav Varnenčík;
    Bulgarian: Владислав Варненчик (Vladislav Varnenchik);
    Lithuanian: Vladislovas III Varnietis;
    Croatian: Vladislav I. Jagelović.
  2. ^ He inherited the title of the Supreme Duke (Supremus Dux) of Grand Duchy of Lithuania as the eldest son of Władysław II Jagiełło, who adopted this title after the Union of Horodło in 1413.
  3. ^ Teresa Pac incorrectly provides the date as 25 August 1434 in her work Common Culture and the Ideology of Difference in Medieval and Contemporary Poland.[17]
  4. ^ The Polish term "rozum", embedded in the chronicles of Jan Długosz, is directly translated as "the mind" and can be interpreted as "wisdom".[22]
  5. ^ Oleśnicki often spoke in the name of political leaders in the country.

Bibliography

Citations

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  3. ^ a b Korytkowski 1883, p. 131.
  4. ^ ZPE.
  5. ^ Michalik, Małecki & Kurz 1996, p. 59.
  6. ^ Duczmal 1996, pp. 277, 427.
  7. ^ a b Duczmal 1996, p. 277.
  8. ^ Jefferson 2012, p. 148.
  9. ^ Kwiatkowski 1883, p. 1.
  10. ^ a b c d Kwiatkowski 1883, p. 2.
  11. ^ Kwiatkowski 1883, pp. 2–3.
  12. ^ Spórna, Wierzbicki & Wygonik 2004, p. 401.
  13. ^ a b Sokołowski & Inlender 1897, p. 312.
  14. ^ a b c Sokołowski & Inlender 1897, p. 311.
  15. ^ Sokołowski & Inlender 1897, pp. 311–312.
  16. ^ Reddaway et al. 1950, p. 234.
  17. ^ a b c d Pac 2022, p. 150.
  18. ^ a b Pac 2022, pp. 149–150.
  19. ^ a b Długosz 1869, p. 506.
  20. ^ a b Długosz 1869, pp. 506–507.
  21. ^ a b Nowakowska 2017.
  22. ^ a b c Długosz 1869, p. 507.
  23. ^ Olejnik 1996, p. 55.
  24. ^ Prokop 2001, p. 23.
  25. ^ a b c Kiaupienė 2008, pp. 205–211.
  26. ^ a b Sužiedėlis 1970–1978, pp. 348–350.
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  50. ^ Ágoston 2023, pp. 64–65.
  51. ^ Stone 2014, p. 22.
  52. ^ a b Museranu 2018, p. 71.
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  54. ^ a b c d e f Museranu 2018, p. 72.
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  56. ^ a b c Museranu 2018, pp. 73–74.
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Sources

External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wladislaus III of Poland and Hungary.
Władysław III of Poland
Jagiellon dynasty
Born: 31 October 1424 Died: 10 November 1444
Regnal titles
Preceded by
Władysław II
King of Poland

1434–1444 		Succeeded by
Preceded by
Croatia

disputed by Ladislaus V
1440–1444 		Succeeded by
Ladislaus V
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