Body piercing
Body piercing, which is a form of
The reasons for piercing or not piercing are varied. Some people pierce for religious or spiritual reasons, while others pierce for self-expression, for aesthetic value, for sexual pleasure, to conform to their culture or to rebel against it. Some forms of piercing remain controversial, particularly when applied to youth. The display or placement of piercings have been restricted by schools, employers and religious groups. In spite of the controversy, some people have practiced extreme forms of body piercing, with Guinness bestowing World Records on individuals with hundreds and even thousands of permanent and temporary piercings.
Contemporary body piercing practices emphasize the use of safe body piercing materials, frequently utilizing specialized tools developed for the purpose. Body piercing is an invasive procedure with some risks, including allergic reaction, infection, excessive scarring and unanticipated physical injuries, but such precautions as sanitary piercing procedures and careful aftercare are emphasized to minimize the likelihood of encountering serious problems. The healing time required for a body piercing may vary widely according to placement, from as little as a month for some genital piercings to as much as two full years for the navel. Some piercings may be more complicated, leading to rejection.
History
Body adornment has only recently become a subject of serious scholarly research by
The modern record has been also distorted by the 20th-century inventions of piercing enthusiast
Ear piercing
Ear piercing has been practiced all over the world since ancient times, and there is considerable written and archaeological evidence of the practice. Mummified bodies with pierced ears have been discovered, including the oldest mummified body discovered to date, the 5,300-year-old
Among the
In Europe, earrings for women fell from fashion generally between the 4th and 16th centuries, as styles in clothing and hair tended to obscure the ears, but they gradually thereafter came back into vogue in Italy, Spain, England and France—spreading as well to North America—until after World War I when piercing fell from favor and the newly invented Clip-on earring became fashionable.
Nose piercing
Nose piercing also has a long history. c. 1500 BCE, the Vedas refer to Lakshmi's nose piercings, This piercing is sometimes done the night before the woman marries.
In
Piercings of the lip and tongue
Lip piercing and
In some Pre-Columbian and North American cultures, labrets were seen as a status symbol.[34] They were the oldest form of high status symbol among the Haida women, though the practice of wearing them died out due to Western influence.[35]
Tongue piercing was practiced by the Aztec,
The history of nipple piercing, navel piercing, and genital piercing has been particularly misrepresented by printed works continuing to repeat myths that were originally promulgated by Malloy in the pamphlet Body & Genital Piercing in Brief.[1][4] For example, according to Malloy's colleague Jim Ward, Malloy claimed navel piercing was popular among ancient Egyptian aristocrats and was depicted in Egyptian statuary,[4] a claim that is widely repeated.[37][38] Other sources say there are no records to support a historical practice for navel piercing.[39]
However, records do exist that refer to practices of nipple and genital piercing in various cultures prior to the 20th century. Kama Sutra, dated to the Gupta Empire of Ancient India, describes genital piercing to permit sexual enhancement by inserting pins and other objects into the foreskin of the penis.[11] The Dayak tribesmen of Borneo passed a shard of bone through their glans for the opposite reason, to diminish their sexual activity.[40] In the Talmud (Tractate Shabbat 64a), there may be mention of a genital piercing in the prohibition against the kumaz, which medieval French Talmudic commenter Rashi interpreted as a chastity piercing for women.[41] Other interpreters have, however, suggested that the kumaz was rather a pendant shaped like a vulva or a girdle.[42][43]
Nipple piercing may have been a sign of masculinity for the soldiers of Rome.[44] Nipple piercing has also been connected to rites of passage for both British and American sailors who had traveled beyond a significant latitude and longitude.[22] It is widely reported that in the 1890s, nipple rings called "bosom rings" resurfaced as a fashion statement among women of the West, who would wear them on one or both sides, but if such a trend existed, it was short-lived.[22][45]
Growing popularity in the West
By the early part of the 20th century, piercing of any body part other than the ear lobe had become uncommon in the West.
Body piercing was also heavily popularized in the United States by a group of Californians, including
A table in Larry Townsend's The Leatherman's Handbook II (the 1983 second edition; the 1972 first edition did not include this list) which is generally considered authoritative states that a purple handkerchief is a symbol for body piercing in the handkerchief code, which is employed usually among gay male casual-sex seekers or BDSM practitioners in the United States, Canada, Australia and Europe. Wearing the handkerchief on the left indicates the top, dominant, or active partner; right the bottom, submissive, or passive partner. However, negotiation with a prospective partner remains important because, as Townsend noted, people may wear hankies of any color "only because the idea of the hankie turns them on" or "may not even know what it means".[52]
A significant development in body piercing in England occurred in 1987, when during Operation Spanner, a group of homosexuals—including well known body piercer Alan Oversby—were convicted of assault for their involvement in consensual sadomasochism over a 10-year period, including acts of body piercing.[51] The courts declared that decorative body piercing was not illegal, but that erotic body piercing was.[53] Subsequently, the group Countdown on Spanner formed in 1992 in protest. The group appealed the decision before the High Court of Justice, the House of Lords and finally the European Commission of Human Rights, attempting to overturn the verdict which ruled consent immaterial in acts of sadomasochism, without success.[54] In spite of their repeated failures, the situation publicized the issue, with The Times editorializing the court's decision as "illiberal nonsense" in 1993.[54] In 1996 Countdown on Spanner received the Large Nonprofit Organization of the Year award as part of the Pantheon of Leather Awards.[55]
Body modification in general became more popular in the United States in the 1990s, as piercing also became more widespread, with growing availability and access to piercings of the navel, nose, eyebrows, lips, tongue, nipples, and genitals.
Alongside traditional piercing techniques, modern body adornment includes variant techniques such as pocketing and flesh stapling, although as of 2007[update] these were still not widely made available by piercers.[58] In the first of these, a scalpel opens the skin or mucous membranes, into which the larger end of a piece of jewellery or—if using a bar—two ends are inserted.[59][60] These kinds of piercings may be difficult to remove, as fibrous tissue can form around the end or ends of the jewellery or the implanted tube into which the jewellery is placed. When a bar is used, pocketing looks quite similar to flesh stapling.[59] The latter technique is frequently done in the form of a ladder.[60] Modern body piercing practices also include dermal anchoring or dermal piercing, which combines piercing and implantation to create a single point of opening in the body (whereas pocketing creates two) to permit one end of the jewellery to show above the surface of the skin.[61] While this technique can be performed almost anywhere on the body, as of 2007[update] it was popularly done between the eyes, on the chest, or on the finger, to simulate a ring.
21st century
The practice of body piercing is subject to trends and fashions. Belly button and eyebrow piercings were popular during the 1990s when the piercing trend entered the mainstream. In 2015, the
A 2005 survey of 10,503 people in England over the age of 16 found that approximately 10% (1,049) had body piercings in sites other than the earlobe, with a heavy representation of women aged 16–24 (46.2% piercing in that demographic).[70] Among the most common body sites, the navel was top at 33%, with the nose and ear (other than lobe) following at 19% and 13%. The tongue and nipple tied at 9%. The eyebrow, lip and genitals were 8%, 4% and 2%, respectively.[70] Preference among women followed closely on that ranking, though eyebrow piercings were more common than nipple piercings. Among male responders, the order was significantly different, descending in popularity from nipple, eyebrow, ear, tongue, nose, lip and genitals.[70]
A cross-cultural study published in 2011 found that individuals with piercings were likely to be involved in other forms of countercultural expression as well.[71]
Reasons for piercing
Reasons for piercing vary greatly. A 2001 survey in Clinical Nursing Research, an international publication, found that 62% of people who have had piercings have done so in an effort "to express their individuality."[72] People also pierce to commemorate landmark events or to overcome traumatic ones.[73] According to the assistant director of the Frankfurt University Teaching Hospital for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, some sexual abuse survivors choose body piercing as a means of "reclaiming body parts from memories of abuse".[74] Piercing can also be chosen for simple aesthetic value, to highlight particular areas of the body, as a navel piercing may reflect a woman's satisfaction with the shape and condition of her stomach.[75] Some people pierce, permanently or temporarily, to enhance sexual pleasure. Genital and nipple piercings may increase sexual satisfaction.[72][76] Some people participate in a form of body play known as play piercing, in which piercings may be done temporarily on the genitals or elsewhere on the body for sexual gratification.[77]
Piercing combined with
Bridging the gap between self-expressive piercing and spiritual piercing, modern indigenous people may use piercing and other forms of body modification as a way of ritually reconnecting with themselves and society, which according to Musafar once used piercing as a culturally binding ritual.[74] But at the same time that piercing can be culturally binding, it may also be a means of rebellion, particularly for adolescents in Western cultures.[80]
A fifteen-year analysis published in 2011, Body Piercing and Identity Construction, found that public piercing served as a mechanism of both accelerated camaraderie and political communication, while private piercings served to enhance sexuality and contest heteronormativity.[71]
Certain piercings are done to enhance sexual pleasure. One example is the Prince Albert Piercing. Prince Albert (PA) piercing may be done for different reasons. Some men go for it for aesthetic reasons, whereas some may try it as an adventure. Men with PA piercing report an increased sense of sexual gratification. This piercing works by stimulating the urethral area (the passage through which urine and semen pass) during sex. The jewelry may provide greater sexual pleasure while masturbating or during oral, anal, or vaginal sex. PA piercing also increases the sexual pleasure of the partner. It can stimulate the nerves in the mouth and genital areas of the partner during sex.[81]
Piercing prohibitions and taboos
While body piercing has grown more widespread, it remains controversial. Some countries impose age of consent laws requiring
In 2004, controversy erupted in
According to 2006's Tattoos and Body Piercing, corporate
Body piercing in some religions is held to be destructive to the body. Some passages of the
In 2018 the first piercing business in the UAE was opened in Dubai[97] by American piercer, Maria Tash.
World records
Officially titled "Most Pierced Woman",
In January 2003, Canadian Brent Moffat set the World Record for most body piercings in one session (700 piercings with 18g surgical needles in 1 session of 7 hours, using play piercing where the skin is pierced and sometimes jewellery is inserted, which is worn temporarily).[100] In December of the same year, Moffat had 900 piercings in 4½ hours.[101] On 4 March 2006, the record was overturned by Kam Ma, who had 1,015 temporary metal rings inserted in 7 hours and 55 minutes.[99] The record for most body piercings with surgical needles was set on 29 May 2008, when Robert Jesus Rubio allowed 900 18-gauge, 0.5 centimetres (0.20 in)-long surgical needles to be inserted into his body.[102]
Contemporary piercing practices
Contemporary body piercing jewellery
Body piercing jewellery should be hypoallergenic.[103] A number of materials are used, with varying strengths and weaknesses. Surgical stainless steel, niobium and titanium are commonly used metals, with titanium the least likely to cause allergic reaction of the three.[104] Platinum and palladium are also safe alternatives, even in fresh piercings.[105] Initial piercings should never be done with gold of any grade, as gold is mixed with other metals, and sterling silver is not a good alternative in a piercing, as it may cause allergies in initial piercings and will tarnish in piercings of any age.[104] An additional risk for allergic reaction may arise when the stud or clasp of jewellery is made from a different metal than the primary piece.[76]
Body piercing jewellery is measured by thickness and diameter/length. Most countries use millimeters. In the US, the Brown & Sharpe AWG gauging system is used, which assigns lower numbers to thicker middles.[105] 00 gauge is 9.246 millimetres (0.3640 in), while 20 gauge is 0.813 millimetres (0.0320 in).[106] For discussion of gauges, see: "Body jewelry sizes."
Piercing tools
Permanent body piercings are performed by creating an opening in the body using a sharp object through the area to be pierced. This can either be done by puncturing an opening using a needle (usually a hollow medical needle) or scalpel or by removing tissue, either with a dermal punch or through scalpelling.
Tools used in body piercing include:
- The piercing needle
- The standard method in the United States involves making an opening using a beveled-tip hollow medical needle, which is available in different lengths, gauges and even shapes.[107] While straight needles are useful for many body parts, curved needles are manufactured for areas where straight needles are not ideal. The needle selected is typically the same gauge (or sometimes larger as with cartilage piercings) as the initial jewellery to be worn, with higher gauges indicating thinner needles. The needle is inserted into the body part being pierced, frequently by hand but sometimes with the aid of a needle holder or pusher. While the needle is still in the body, the initial jewellery to be worn in the piercing is pushed through the opening, following the back of the needle. Jewellery is often inserted into the hollow end of a needle, so that as the needle pulls through the jewellery is left behind.[108]
- The indwelling cannula
- Outside of the United States, many piercers use a needle containing a cannula (or catheter), a hollow plastic tube placed at the end of the needle.[109] In some countries, the piercing needle favoured in the United States is regarded as a medical device and is illegal for body piercers.[109] The procedure is similar to the piercing needle method, but the initial jewellery is inserted into the back of the cannula and the cannula and the jewellery are then pulled through the piercing. More bleeding may follow, as the piercing is larger than the jewellery.
- The dermal punch
- A dermal punch is used to remove a circular area of tissue, into which jewellery is placed, and may be useful for larger cartilage piercings.[110] They are popular for use in ears, though not legal for use by nonmedical personnel in some parts of the United States.[110]
- The piercing gun
- The vast majority of women in the west have their ears pierced with a piercing gun.[111] The safety of piercing guns has been disputed. The Department of Health of Western Australia does not recommend their use for piercing body parts other than the lobes of ears,[112] and the USA Association of Professional Piercers recommends that piercing guns not be used for any piercing,[111] requiring members to agree not to use piercing guns in their practice.[113]
- Cork
- Cork may be placed on the opposite side of the body part being pierced to receive the needle.[109]
- Forceps
- Forceps, or clamps, may be used to hold and stabilize the tissue to be pierced.[109] Most piercings that are stabilized with forceps use the triangular-headed "Pennington" forcep, while tongues are usually stabilized with an oval-headed forcep. Most forceps have large enough openings in their jaws to permit the needle and jewellery to pass directly through, though some slotted forceps are designed with a removable segment instead for removal after the piercing.[114] Forceps are not used in the freehand method, in which the piercer supports the tissue by hand.[115]
- Needle receiving tubes
- A hollow tube made of metal, shatter-resistant glass or plastic, needle receiving tubes, like forceps, are used to support the tissue at the piercing site and are common in septum and some cartilage piercings.[116] Not only are these tubes intended to support the tissue, but they also receive the needle once it has passed through the tissue, offering protection from the sharp point. Needle receiving tubes are not used in the freehand piercing method.[115]
- Anaesthesia
- Anaesthesia is supplied by some piercers, particularly in the United Kingdom and Europe.[117] The anaesthesia may be topical or injected. Piercers and other non-medical personnel are not legally permitted to administer anaesthetics in the United States.
Risks associated with body piercing
Body piercing is an invasive procedure with risks. In a 2005 survey of 10,503 persons over the age of 16 in England, complications were reported in 31% of piercings, with professional help being necessary in 15.2%.[70] 0.9% had complications serious enough to require hospitalization.[70]
Some risks of note include:
- Allergic reaction to the metal in the piercing jewellery, particularly nickel. This risk can be minimized by using high quality jewellery manufactured from titanium or niobium or similar inert metals.[118][119] Metal piercing jewellery puts metal in contact with damaged skin, increasing the risk of developing a metal allergy; this is thought to be why such allergies are more common in women.[120]
- Infection, diabetics,[123] as well as those taking corticosteroids.[76] In 2006, a diabetic woman in Indiana lost a breast due to an infection from a nipple piercing.[124] Viral infections may include hepatitis B, hepatitis C and, potentially, HIV,[118] although as of 2009 there had been no documented cases of HIV caused by piercing.[125] While rare, infection due to piercing of the tongue can be fatal.[126][127][128] Higher prevalence of colonization of Candida albicans was reported in young individuals with tongue piercing, in comparison to non-tongue-pierced matched individuals.[129]
- Excess scar tissue, including hypertrophic scar and keloid formation.[118] While piercings can be removed, they may leave a hole, mark or scar.[130]
- Physical trauma including tearing, friction or bumping of the piercing site, which may cause edema and delay healing.[130][131] The risks can be minimized by wearing properly sized jewellery and not changing it unnecessarily, by not touching the piercing more than required for aftercare, and by being conscious of environmental factors (such as clothing) that may impact the piercing.[131]
- gingival tissue and dental fracture and wear. Recession of gingival tissue affects 19% to 68% of subjects with lip and/or intra-oral ornaments.[132][133] In some cases, the alveolar tooth-bearing bone is also involved, jeopardizing the stability and durability of the teeth in place and requiring a periodontal regeneration surgery.[134][135] Dental fracture and wear affects 14% to 41% of subjects with lip and/or intra-oral ornaments.[133]
Contemporary body piercing studios generally take numerous precautions to protect the health of the person being pierced and the piercer. Piercers are expected to sanitize the location to be pierced as well as their hands, even though they will often wear gloves during the procedure (and in some areas must, as it is prescribed by law).[136] Quite frequently, these gloves will be changed multiple times, often one pair for each step of setup to avoid cross contamination. For example, after a piercer wearing gloves has cleaned the area to be pierced on a client, the piercer may change gloves to avoid recontaminating the area. Wearing sterile gloves is required by law for professional piercing procedures in some areas, such as the states of Florida and South Carolina. Tools and jewellery should be sterilized in autoclaves,[137] and non-autoclavable surfaces should be cleaned with disinfectant agents on a regular basis and between clients.
In addition, the
The healing process and body piercing aftercare
The aftercare process for body piercing has evolved gradually through practice, and many myths and harmful recommendations persist.[138] A reputable piercing studio should provide clients with written and verbal aftercare instructions, as is in some areas mandated by law.[139]
The healing process of piercings is broken down into three stages:[140]
- The inflammatory phase, during which the wound is open and bleeding, inflammation and tenderness are all to be expected;
- The growth or proliferative phase, during which the body produces cells and protein to heal the puncture and the edges contract around the piercing, forming a tunnel of scar tissue called a fistula. This phase may last weeks, months, or longer than a year.
- The maturation or remodeling phase, as the cells lining the piercing strengthen and stabilize. This stage takes months or years to complete.
It is normal for a white or slightly yellow
The amount of time it typically takes a piercing to heal varies widely according to the placement of the piercing. Genital piercings can be among the quicker to heal, with piercings of the clitoral hood and Prince Albert piercings healing in as little as a month, though some may take longer.[142] Navel piercings can be the slowest to heal, with one source reporting a range of six months to two full years.[142] The prolonged healing of navel piercings may be connected to clothing friction.[76]
See also
- Body jewelry sizes
- Body piercing regulation in the UK
- Corset piercing
- Genital piercing
- List of body piercings
- Play piercing
- Suspension piercing
Notes
- ^ a b c d e f g (Angel 2009, p. 2)
- ^ (Smith 2002, p. 171)
- ^ (Woods 2006)
- ^ a b c (Ward 2004)
- ^ a b (Hesse 2007, p. xvii)
- ^ (Hesse 2007, p. 78)
- ^ Genesis 35:4
- ^ Exodus 32
- ^ Deuteronomy 15:12–17
- ^ (Ullman 2008)
- ^ a b c d (Angel 2009, p. 12)
- ^ (Gay & Whittington 2002, p. 53)
- ^ (White 1970, p. 116)
- ^ (Wilkinson 1837, pp. 370–371)
- ^ (Wilkinson 1837, p. 79)
- ^ (Wilkinson 1837, pp. 79–80)
- ^ (Smith 1908, p. 233)
- ^ (Prisant 2003, p. 406)
- ^ a b (Smith 1908, pp. 234–235)
- ^ a b c (Hesse 2007, p. 26)
- ^ a b (Angel 2009, p. 13)
- ^ a b c (DeMello 2007, p. 204)
- ^ (Pitts-Taylor 2008, p. 365)
- ^ (DeMello 2012, pp. 239–240)
- ^ Genesis 24:22
- ^ a b c (DeMello 2007, p. 205)
- ^ a b (Hastings 2003, p. 397)
- ^ (King 2007, p. 5)
- ^ a b (DeMello 2007, p. 209)
- ^ (DeMello 2007, p. 248)
- ^ (Weule & Werner 1909, pp. 55–56)
- ^ (Wood 1874, pp. 395–396)
- ^ (Phillips & Carillet 2006, p. 207)
- ^ (Lawman 2004, p. 92)
- ^ (van den Brink 1974, p. 71)
- ^ (McRae & Davies 2006, p. 36)
- ^ (Miller 2004, p. 17)
- ^ (Vale & Juno 1989, p. 104)
- ^ (Parents 2007, p. 151) "Navel piercing. Unlike the other body piercings, this one has not been recorded in history."
- ^ (Rutty 2004, p. 163)
- ^ (Brodsky 2006, p. 55) "Kumaz is the chastity belt of the vagina that they would make for their daughters. They would pierce the walls of the vagina like they would pierce the ears. They would insert it [...] so that the men could not have sex with them."
- ^ (Wagner 2006, p. 248)
- ^ (Adler 1998, p. 144)
- ^ (Graves 2000, p. 13)
- ^ (Kern 1975, p. 95) "In the late 1890s the "bosom ring" came into fashion briefly and sold in expensive Parisian jewellery shops. These anneaux de sein were inserted through the nipple, and some women wore one on either side."
- ^ a b c d e f (Porterfield 2003, p. 356)
- ^ a b c (Angel 2009, p. 16)
- ^ a b (Voss 2007)
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- ^ a b (Angel 2009, p. 15)
- ISBN 0-89237-010-6.
- ^ (Pitts 2003, p. 95)
- ^ a b (Camp 2007)
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- ^ (Angel 2009, pp. 15–16)
- ^ a b (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 11)
- ^ (DeMello 2007, p. 219)
- ^ a b (DeMello 2007, pp. 218–219)
- ^ a b (De Cuyper, Pérez-Cotopos & Cossio 2010, p. 44)
- ^ (DeMello 2007, p. 92)
- ^ (Garnsworthy 2015)
- ^ (Arata 2015)
- ^ (Wilbur 2016)
- ^ (Spencer 2015)
- ^ (Hull Daily 2015)
- ^ (Duff 2015)
- ^ (Lough 2015)
- ^ (McClatchey 2015)
- ^ a b c d e (Bone et al. 2008, pp. 1426–1428)
- ^ a b (Romanienko 2011, pp. 33–50, 131–139)
- ^ a b (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 29)
- ^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, pp. 30, 34)
- ^ a b (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 34)
- ^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 28)
- ^ a b c d (Meltzer 2005)
- ^ (Miller 2004, p. 121)
- ^ (American Museum of Natural History 1921, pp. 21–22)
- ^ (Ooi 2004, p. 1139)
- ^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 36)
- ^ "Why Do Guys Get Prince Alberts?". MedicineNet. Retrieved 26 March 2023.
- ^ "Body Piercing Client Consent Form" (PDF). Stockton-on-Tees Council. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
- ^ (BBC News 2011)
- ^ "Children and Community Services Act 2004 - Sect 104A". Western Australian Consolidated Acts. 2004. Retrieved 3 January 2013.
- ^ "Written consent form for body piercing of a child under 18 years of age in the CEO's care" (PDF). Government of Western Australia, Department for Child Protection and Family Support. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2013.
- ^ a b "Tattooing and Body Piercing | State Laws, Statutes and Regulations". National Conference of State Legislatures. 13 March 2019. Archived from the original on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
- ^ (Miller 2004, pp. 17–18)
- ^ (Miller 2004, p. 19)
- ProQuest 337133263.
- ^ "Dress Code / Overview". schoolwires.henry.k12.ga.us. Retrieved 5 September 2022.[permanent dead link]
- ^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, pp. 76–77)
- ^ a b (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 77)
- ^ Fox, Michael W (June 2006). "The changing face of discrimination law". Texas Bar Journal. 69: 564–569 – via Hein Online.
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- ^ Le Roux, Marion (20 July 2020). "Tackling discrimination based on looks: guidance from France". Lexology. Retrieved 30 January 2022.
- ^ "Body Piercing". The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Retrieved 14 December 2009.
- ^ (Day 2018)
- ^ a b (Daily Telegraph 2009)
- ^ a b c (Glenday 2009, p. 105)
- ^ (Folkard 2004, p. 50)
- ^ (Daily Times 2004)
- ^ (Guinness World Records 2009)
- ^ (Miller 2004, p. 21)
- ^ a b (Miller 2004, p. 25)
- ^ a b (Miller 2004, p. 26)
- ^ (Miller 2004, p. 27)
- ^ (Angel 2009, p. 57)
- ^ (Miller 2004, p. 103)
- ^ a b c d (Angel 2009, p. 58)
- ^ a b (Angel 2009, p. 241)
- ^ a b c (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 56)
- ^ "The Use of Ear Piercing Guns/Nose Piercing Guns" (PDF). Department of Health, Western Australia. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 March 2011. Retrieved 3 January 2013.
- ^ "FAQ". Association of Professional Piercers. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
- ^ (Angel 2009, pp. 58–59)
- ^ a b (Angel 2009, p. 60)
- ^ (Angel 2009, p. 59)
- ^ (Angel 2009, p. 61)
- ^ a b c (Koenig & Carnes 1999, pp. 379–385)
- ^ (Brody 2000)
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- ^ (Medical News Today 2006)
- ^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 46)
- ^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, pp. 46–48)
- ^ (Alvarez 2006)
- ^ (Angel 2009, p. 22)
- ^ (BBC News 1999)
- ^ (Siegel 2008)
- ^ (Mason 2009)
- ^ (Zadik et al. 2010)
- ^ a b (Mayo Clinic staff 2008)
- ^ a b (Angel 2009, p. 186)
- ^ (Levin, Zadik & Becker 2005)
- ^ a b (Levin & Zadik 2007)
- ^ (Zadik & Sandler 2007)
- ^ (Levin 2007)
- ^ (Angel 2009, p. 56)
- ^ (Angel 2009, p. 37)
- ^ (Angel 2009, pp. 180–181)
- ^ (Angel 2009, p. 181)
- ^ (Angel 2009, pp. 181–182)
- ^ a b c (Angel 2009, p. 182)
- ^ a b (Miller 2004, p. 106)
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External links
- Amelia Guimarin (14 May 2005). "In the Flesh: Body Piercing as a Form of Commodity-Based Identity" (slides). Mentor: Teresa Caldiera.