Durian
Durian | |
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Durians at a market | |
Cut durian revealing its pulp | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Malvales |
Family: | Malvaceae |
Subfamily: | Helicteroideae |
Tribe: | Durioneae |
Genus: | Durio L. |
Type species | |
Durio zibethinus[1] L.
| |
Species | |
There are currently 30 recognised species (see the List of Durio species) |
The durian (/ˈdʊəriən/, /ˈdjʊəriən/)[2] is the edible fruit of several tree species belonging to the genus Durio. There are 30 recognized Durio species, at least nine of which produce edible fruit.[3][4] Durio zibethinus, native to Borneo and Sumatra, is the only species available on the international market. It has over 300 named varieties in Thailand and 100 in Malaysia as of 1987.[3] Other species are sold in their local regions.[3]
Named in some regions as the "king of fruits",
Some people regard the durian as having a pleasantly sweet fragrance, whereas others find the aroma overpowering and unpleasant. The smell evokes reactions ranging from deep appreciation to intense disgust. The persistence of its odour, which may linger for several days, has led some hotels and public transportation services in
Etymology
The name "durian" is derived from the Malay word duri (meaning 'thorn'), a reference to the numerous prickly thorns on its rind, combined with the noun-building suffix -an.[6][7] According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the alternate spelling durion was first used in a 1588 translation of The History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of China and the Situation Thereof by the Spanish explorer Juan González de Mendoza:[6]
There is one, yt is called in the Malaca tongue Durion, and is so good that [...] it doth exceede in savour all others that euer they had seene, or tasted.
Other historical variants include duryoen, duroyen, durean, and dorian.[6] The name of the type species, Durio zibethinus, is derived from Viverra zibetha (the large Indian civet), a mammal known for its odour.[8]
Taxonomy
Durio sensu lato has 30 recognised species.[10] Durio sensu stricto comprises 24 of these species. The 6 additional species included in Durio s.l. are now considered by some to comprise their own genus, Boschia.[11][12] Durio s.s. and Boschia have indistinguishable vegetative characteristics and many shared floral characteristics. The crucial difference between the two is that anther locules open by apical pores in Boschia and by longitudinal slits in Durio s.s.[13] These two genera form a clade that is sister to another genus in the tribe Durioneae, Cullenia. These three genera together form a clade that is characterised by highly modified (mono- and polythecate, as opposed to bithecate) anthers.[11]
The genus Durio is placed by some taxonomists in the family Bombacaceae, or by others in a broadly defined Malvaceae that includes Bombacaceae, and by others in a smaller family of just seven genera Durionaceae.[1][14][15]
Durio is often included in Bombacaceae because of the presence of monothecate anthers, as opposed to the bithecate anthers common to the rest of the mallows (and angiosperms, in general). However, the first studies to examine mallow phylogeny using molecular data found that the tribe Durioneae should be placed in the subfamily Helicteroideae of an expanded Malvaceae. The authors of these studies hypothesise that monothecate anthers have most likely evolved convergently in Durioneae and in the Malvatheca clade (comprising Malvaceae s.l. subfamilies Malvoideae and Bombacoideae).[16][17]
A draft genome analysis of durian indicates it has about 46,000 coding and non-coding genes, among which a class called methionine gamma-lyases – which regulate the odour of organosulfur compounds – may be primarily responsible for the distinct durian odour.[8][18] Genome analysis also indicated that the closest plant relative of durian is cotton.[8][18]
Description
Durian trees are large, growing to 25–50 metres (80–165 feet) in height depending on the species.
D. zibethinus is the only species commercially cultivated on a large scale and available outside of its native region. Since this species is open-pollinated, it shows considerable diversity in fruit colour and odour, size of flesh and seed, and tree
Durian flowers are large and feathery with copious
Some scientists have hypothesised that the development of monothecate anthers and larger flowers (compared to those of the remaining genera in Durioneae) in the clade consisting of Durio, Boschia, and Cullenia was in conjunction with a transition from beetle pollination to vertebrate pollination.[12]
Cultivars
Over the centuries, numerous durian
Malaysian varieties
The Malaysian Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-Based Industry started to register varieties of durian in 1934, and now maintains a list of registered varieties, where each cultivar is assigned a common name and a code number starting with "D". These codes are widely used through South-East Asia, and as of 2021, there are over 200 registered varieties.[24] Many superior cultivars have been identified through competitions held at the annual Malaysian Agriculture, Horticulture, and Agrotourism Show. There are 13 common Malaysian varieties having favourable qualities of colour, texture, odour, taste, high yield, and resistance against various diseases.[25]
Musang King (D197) is the most popular durian breed from Malaysia, rendered in Chinese as "Mao Shan Wang" (猫山王), which is usually the priciest of all cultivars.[citation needed] The origin of the name "Musang King" dates back to the 80s, when a man named Tan Lai Fook from Raub, Pahang stumbled upon a durian tree in Gua Musang, Kelantan. He brought the tree branch back to Raub for grafting, and this new breed attracted other cultivators. The cultivar was named after Gua Musang, its place of origin, while the Chinese name references the palm civet, the Malay meaning of musang.[26] Musang King is known for its bright yellow flesh and is like a more potent or enhanced version of the D24.[27] Musang King is also the preferred cultivar in Singapore and Vietnam.[27]
Other popular cultivars in Malaysia include:
- "D24" (Sultan), a popular variety known for its bittersweet taste
- "XO", which has a pale colour, thick flesh with a tinge of alcoholic fermentation
- "Tekka" (from Chinese 竹跤; Hokkien POJ: tek-kha) which has a distinctive yellowish core in the inner stem
- "D168" (IOI), which has a round shape, medium size, green and yellow outer skin colour, and has flesh easy to dislodge. The flesh is medium-thick, solid, yellow in colour, and sweet.[28]
- "Red Prawn" (Udang Merah, D175), found in the states of Pahang and Johor.[29][30] The fruit is medium-sized with oval shape, brownish green skin having short thorns. The flesh is thick, not solid, yellow-coloured, and has a sweet taste.[25]
Indonesian varieties
Indonesia has more than 103 varieties of durian. The most cultivated species is Durio zibethinus.[31] Notable varieties are Sukun durian (Central Java), sitokong (Betawi), sijapang (Betawi), Simas (Bogor), Sunan (Jepara), si dodol, and si hijau (South Kalimantan)[31] and Petruk (Jepara,[32] Central Java).[31]
Thai varieties
In Thailand, some popular varieties include Sultan (D24), Kop (D99 Thai: กบ – "frog" Thai pronunciation: [kòp]), Chanee (D123, Thai: ชะนี – "gibbon" Thai pronunciation: [tɕʰániː]), Berserah or Green Durian or Tuan Mek Hijau (D145 Thai: ทุเรียนเขียว – Green Durian Thai pronunciation: [tʰúriːən kʰǐow]), Kan Yao (D158, Thai: ก้านยาว – Long Stem Thai pronunciation: [kâːn jaːw]), Mon Thong (D159, Thai: หมอนทอง – Golden Pillow Thai pronunciation: [mɔ̌ːn tʰɔːŋ]), Kradum Thong (Thai: กระดุมทอง – Golden Button Thai pronunciation: [kràdum tʰɔːŋ]), and with no common name, D169. Each cultivar has a distinct taste and odour. More than 200 cultivars of D. zibethinus exist in Thailand.[citation needed]
Mon Thong is the most commercially sought after, for its thick, full-bodied creamy and mild sweet-tasting flesh with relatively moderate smell emitted and smaller seeds, while Chanee is the best in terms of its resistance to infection by Phytophthora palmivora. Kan Yao is somewhat less common, but prized for its longer window of time when it is both sweet and odourless at the same time. Among all the cultivars in Thailand, five are currently in large-scale commercial cultivation: Chanee, Mon Thong, Kan Yao, Ruang, and Kradum.[33]
By 2007, Thai government scientist Songpol Somsri had crossbred more than ninety varieties of durian to create Chantaburi No. 1, a cultivar without the characteristic odour.
Cultivation and availability
This section may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards, as Reason for rewrite. (April 2022) |
Durian cultivation thrives in tropical areas, ceasing growth when average daily temperatures fall below 22°C (72°F). The fruit is native to Southeast Asia and is commonly found in countries like Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore, Myanmar and the Philippines. Durian is often called the “king of fruits” in Southeast Asia due to its popularity and rich nutritional profile.
D. zibethinus is not grown in Brunei because consumers there prefer other species such as D. graveolens, D. kutejensis, and D. oxleyanus. These species are commonly distributed in Brunei, and together with other species like D. testudinarius and D. dulcis constitute a genetically diverse crop source.[36]
Although the durian is not native to Thailand, Thailand is ranked the world's number one exporter of durian, producing around 700,000 tonnes of durian per year, 400,000 tonnes of which are exported to mainland China and Hong Kong.
Durian was introduced into Australia in the early 1960s and clonal material was first introduced in 1975. Over thirty clones of D. zibethinus and six other Durio species have been subsequently introduced into Australia.
The durian is a seasonal fruit, unlike some other non-seasonal tropical fruits such as the papaya which are available throughout the year. In Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, the season for durians is typically from June to August, coinciding with that of the mangosteen.[10]
Prices of durians are high due to postharvest changes and having a short shelf life in normal temperatures.[48] In Singapore in 2007, the strong demand for high quality cultivars such as the D24 (Sultan), and Musang King (Mao Shan Wang) resulted in high retail prices.[23] The edible portion of the fruit, known as the aril and usually referred to as the "flesh" or "pulp", only accounts for about 15–30% of the mass of the entire fruit.[49] By 2018, Musang King farmers saw very large increases in the prices they received, making the fruit far more lucrative than palm oil or rubber. This led to an increase in durian plantation.[45]
Flavour and odour
This section may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards, as Reason for rewrite. (April 2022) |
The unusual flavour and odour of the fruit have prompted many people to express diverse and passionate views ranging from deep appreciation to intense disgust.[3][50][51] Writing in 1856, the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace provided a much-quoted description of the flavour of the durian:
The five cells are silky-white within, and are filled with a mass of firm, cream-coloured pulp, containing about three seeds each. This pulp is the edible part, and its consistence and flavour are indescribable. A rich custard highly flavoured with almonds gives the best general idea of it, but there are occasional wafts of flavour that call to mind cream-cheese, onion-sauce, sherry-wine, and other incongruous dishes. Then there is a rich glutinous smoothness in the pulp which nothing else possesses, but which adds to its delicacy. It is neither acidic nor sweet nor juicy; yet it wants neither of these qualities, for it is in itself perfect. It produces no nausea or other bad effect, and the more you eat of it the less you feel inclined to stop. In fact, to eat Durians is a new sensation worth a voyage to the East to experience. ... as producing a food of the most exquisite flavour it is unsurpassed.[52][a]
Wallace described himself as being at first reluctant to try it because of the aroma, "but in Borneo I found a ripe fruit on the ground, and, eating it out of doors, I at once became a confirmed Durian eater".[53] He cited one traveller from 1599:[b] "it is of such an excellent taste that it surpasses in flavour all other fruits of the world, according to those who have tasted it."[53] He cites another writer: "To those not used to it, it seems at first to smell like rotten onions, but immediately after they have tasted it they prefer it to all other food. The natives give it honourable titles, exalt it, and make verses on it."[53]
While Wallace cautions that "the smell of the ripe fruit is certainly at first disagreeable", later descriptions by Westerners are more graphic in detail. Novelist Anthony Burgess writes that eating durian is "like eating sweet raspberry blancmange in the lavatory".[54] Travel and food writer Richard Sterling says:
its odor is best described as pig-excrement, turpentine and onions, garnished with a gym sock. It can be smelled from yards away. Despite its great local popularity, the raw fruit is forbidden from some establishments such as hotels, subways and airports, including public transportation in Southeast Asia.[55]
Other comparisons have been made with the civet, sewage, stale vomit, skunk spray and used surgical swabs.[50] The wide range of descriptions for the odour of durian may have a great deal to do with the variability of durian odour itself.[8][56] Durians from different species or clones can have significantly different aromas; for example, red durian (D. dulcis) has a deep caramel flavour with a turpentine odour while red-fleshed durian (D. graveolens) emits a fragrance of roasted almonds.[3] Among the varieties of D. zibethinus, Thai varieties are sweeter in flavour and less odorous than Malay ones.[10] The degree of ripeness has an effect on the flavour as well.[10]
In 2019, researchers from the Technical University of Munich identified ethanethiol and its derivatives as a reason for its fetid smell. However, the biochemical pathway by which the plant produces ethanethiol remained unclear such as the enzyme that releases ethanethiol.[57]
The fruit's strong smell led to its ban from public transport systems in Singapore; it is not used in many hotels because of its pungency.[58]
Phytochemicals
Hundreds of
People in Southeast Asia with frequent exposures to durian are able to easily distinguish the sweet-like scent of its ketones and esters from rotten or putrescine odours which are from volatile amines and fatty acids. Some individuals are unable to differentiate these smells and find this fruit noxious, whereas others find it pleasant and appealing.[3][50][51]
This strong odour can be detected half a mile away by animals, thus luring them. In addition, the fruit is highly appetising to diverse animals, including squirrels, mouse deer, pigs, sun bear, orangutan, elephants, and even carnivorous tigers.[60][61] While some of these animals eat the fruit and dispose of the seed under the parent plant, others swallow the seed with the fruit, and then transport it some distance before excreting, with the seed being dispersed as a result.[62] The thorny, armoured covering of the fruit discourages smaller animals; larger animals are more likely to transport the seeds far from the parent tree.[63]
Ripeness and selection
According to Larousse Gastronomique, the durian fruit is ready to eat when its husk begins to crack.[64] However, the ideal stage of ripeness to be enjoyed varies from region to region in Southeast Asia and by species. Some species grow so tall that they can only be collected once they have fallen to the ground, whereas most cultivars of D. zibethinus are nearly always cut from the tree and allowed to ripen while waiting to be sold. Some people in southern Thailand prefer their durians relatively young when the clusters of fruit within the shell are still crisp in texture and mild in flavour. For some people in northern Thailand, the preference is for the fruit to be soft and aromatic. In Malaysia and Singapore, most consumers prefer the fruit to be as ripe and pungent in aroma as possible and may even risk allowing the fruit to continue ripening after its husk has already cracked open. In this state, the flesh becomes richly creamy and slightly alcoholic.[50]
The various preferences regarding ripeness among consumers make it hard to issue general statements about choosing a "good" durian. A durian that falls off the tree continues to ripen for two to four days, but after five or six days most would consider it overripe and unpalatable,[3] although some Thais proceed from that point to cook it with palm sugar, creating a dessert called durian (or thurian) guan.[65]
Uses
Culinary
Durian fruit is used to flavour a wide variety of sweet edibles such as traditional Malay candy,
In Thailand, durian is often eaten fresh with sweet sticky rice, and blocks of durian paste are sold in the markets, though much of the paste is adulterated with pumpkin.[3] Unripe durians may be cooked as a vegetable, except in the Philippines, where all uses are sweet rather than savoury. Malaysians make both sugared and salted preserves from durian. When durian is minced with salt, onions and vinegar, it is called boder. The durian seeds, which are the size of chestnuts, can be eaten whether they are boiled, roasted or fried in coconut oil, with a texture that is similar to taro or yam, but stickier. In Java, the seeds are sliced thin and cooked with sugar as a confection. Uncooked durian seeds are potentially toxic due to cyclopropene fatty acids and should not be ingested.[69]
Young leaves and
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Durian gelato in Singapore
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Durian cake made of durian-flavoured dodol, Indonesian traditional sweet candy
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Durian pancake in Indonesia
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Durian cakes fromPontianak, West Kalimantan, Indonesia
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Durian pastillas (durian candy) from the Philippines
Nutrition
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
---|---|
Energy | 615 kJ (147 kcal) |
27.09 g | |
Dietary fibre | 3.8 g |
5.33 g | |
1.47 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 7% 1.074 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 5% 0.23 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 19% 0.316 mg |
Folate (B9) | 9% 36 μg |
Vitamin C | 22% 19.7 mg |
Copper | 23% 0.207 mg |
Iron | 2% 0.43 mg |
Magnesium | 7% 30 mg |
Manganese | 14% 0.325 mg |
Phosphorus | 3% 39 mg |
Potassium | 15% 436 mg |
Sodium | 0% 2 mg |
Zinc | 3% 0.28 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 65 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[71] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[72] |
Raw durian is composed of 65% water, 27%
Origin and history
The origin of the durian is thought to be in the region of Borneo and Sumatra, with wild trees in the Malay Peninsula, and orchards commonly cultivated in a wide region from India to New Guinea.[3] Four hundred years ago, it was traded across present-day Myanmar, and was actively cultivated especially in Thailand and South Vietnam.[3]
The earliest known European reference to the durian is the record of
D. zibethinus was introduced into Ceylon by the Portuguese in the 16th century and was reintroduced many times later. It has been planted in the Americas but confined to botanical gardens. The first seedlings were sent from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, to Auguste Saint-Arroman of Dominica in 1884.[77]
In Southeast Asia, the durian has been cultivated for centuries at the village level, probably since the late 18th century, and commercially since the mid-20th century.
In 1949, the British botanist
Since the early 1990s, the domestic and international demand for durian in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region has increased significantly, partly due to the increasing affluence of Southeast Asia.[10] In the early 2020s a Durian craze in China led to a large increase in international trade of the fruit.[79]
Culture and folk medicine
Cultural influences
A common local belief is that the durian is harmful when eaten with coffee
The durian is commonly known as the "king of fruits",[5] a label that can be attributed to its formidable look and overpowering odour.[81] In its native Southeast Asia, the durian is an everyday food and portrayed in the local media in accordance with the cultural perception it has in the region. The durian symbolised the subjective nature of ugliness and beauty in Hong Kong director Fruit Chan's 2000 film Durian Durian (榴槤飄飄, lau lin piu piu), and was a nickname for the reckless but lovable protagonist of the eponymous Singaporean TV comedy Durian King played by Adrian Pang.[82] Likewise, the oddly shaped Esplanade building in Singapore (Theatres on the Bay) is often called "The Durian" by locals,[82] and "The Big Durian" is the nickname of Jakarta, Indonesia.[83]
A durian falling on a person's head can cause serious injuries because it is heavy, armed with sharp thorns, and can fall from a significant height. Wearing a
A naturally spineless variety of durian growing wild in Davao, Philippines, was discovered in the 1960s; fruits borne from these seeds also lacked spines.[10] Since the bases of the scales develop into spines as the fruit matures, sometimes spineless durians are produced artificially by scraping scales off immature fruits.[10] In Malaysia, a spineless durian clone D172 is registered by Agriculture Department on 17 June 1989. It was called "Durian Botak" ('Bald Durian').[88] In Indonesia, Ir Sumeru Ashari, head of Durian Research Centre, Universitas Brawijaya reported spineless durian from Kasembon, Malang. Another cultivar is from Lombok, Nusa Tenggara Barat, Indonesia.[citation needed]
Animals such as Sumatran elephants and tigers are known to consume durians.[61]
One of the names Thailand contributed to the list of storm names for Western North Pacific tropical cyclones was 'Durian',[89] which was retired after the second storm of this name in 2006. Being a fruit much loved by a variety of wild beasts, the durian sometimes signifies the long-forgotten animalistic aspect of humans, as in the legend of Orang Mawas, the Malaysian version of Bigfoot, and Orang Pendek, its Sumatran version, both of which have been claimed to feast on durians.[90][91]
Folk medicine
In Malaysia, a
Southeast Asian traditional beliefs, as well as traditional
The
Environmental impact
The high demand for durians in China has prompted a shift in Malaysia from small-scale durian orchards to large-scale industrial operations. Forests are cleared to make way for large durian plantations, compounding an existing deforestation problem caused by the cultivation of
The prevalence of the Musang King and Monthong varieties in Malaysia and Thailand, respectively, has led to concerns about a decrease in the durian's genetic diversity at the expense of higher-quality varieties.[97] A 2022 study of durian species in Kalimantan, Indonesia, found low genetic diversity, suggestive of inbreeding depression and genetic drift.[100] Additionally, these dominant hybrid varieties are more susceptible to pests and fungal diseases, requiring the use of insecticides and fungicides that can weaken the trees.[97]
See also
Notes
a. ^ Wallace makes an almost identical comment in his 1866 publication The Malay Archipelago: The land of the orang-utang and the bird of paradise.[53]
b. ^ The traveller Wallace cites is Linschott (Wallace's spelling for Jan Huyghen van Linschoten), whose name appears repeatedly in Internet searches on durian, with such citations themselves tracing back to Wallace. In translations of Linschoten's writings, the fruit is spelled as duryoen.[101]
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In Brunei Darussalam, D. zibethinus does not occur locally. The people in Brunei prefer the other species, such as D. graveolens, D. kutejensis, and D. oxyleyanus. These species are quite commonly distributed in the country and together with other species like D. testudinarius and D. dulcis, represent rich genetic diversity.
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