History of Tibet (1950–present)
History of Tibet |
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The history of Tibet from 1950 to the present includes the Chinese
1950–1955: Traditional systems
In 1949, seeing that the Communists were gaining control of China, the
The
In 1951, representatives of Tibetan authority, with the Dalai Lama's authorization,
Tibetan areas in
1956–1958: Trials and incremental reform
By 1956 there was unrest in eastern Kham and Amdo, where land reform had been implemented in full. Rebellions erupted and eventually spread into western Kham and Ü-Tsang. In some parts of the country Chinese Communists tried to establish rural communes, as they were in the whole of China.[citation needed]
A rebellion against the Chinese occupation was led by noblemen and monasteries and broke out in
The
For many, their religious beliefs were not even left untouched by the communist influence. Those who practice Buddhism, as well as the Dalai Lama, were not safe from harm at this time. It came to the point where the Chinese government had caused a suppression of religion and in the end felt threatened by the Dalai Lama. What the Chinese government had thought to do was to kidnap and harm him. India ended up being the country that provided the safest land for the Tibetans and the Dalai Lama who wanted to practice Buddhism in peace and be safe at the same time.
In 1959, China's socialist land reforms and military crackdown on rebels in Kham and Amdo led to the
After this, resistance forces operated from
In 1969, on the eve of Kissinger's overtures to China, American support was withdrawn and the Nepalese government dismantled the operation.[citation needed]
1959–1976: Uprising and upheaval
1959 uprising
Armed conflict between Tibetan rebels and the Chinese army (PLA) broke out in 1956 in the Kham and Amdo regions, which had been subjected to socialist reform. The guerrilla warfare later spread to other areas of Tibet.
In March 1959, a revolt erupted in Lhasa, which had been under the effective control of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) since the Seventeen Point Agreement in 1951.[33] On 12 March, protesters appeared in the streets of Lhasa declaring Tibet's independence. Within days, Tibetan troops prepared to secure an evacuation route for the Dalai Lama, who fled into exile during the uprising. Artillery shells landed near the Dalai Lama's Palace,[34] prompting the full force of the Uprising. Combat lasted only about two days, with Tibetan rebel forces being badly outnumbered and poorly armed.[35]
Reprisals for the 1959 Tibetan uprising involved the killing of 87,000 Tibetans by the Chinese count, according to a Radio Lhasa broadcast of 1 October 1960, although Tibetan exiles claim that 430,000 died during the Uprising and the subsequent 15 years of guerrilla warfare, which continued until the US withdrew support to it.[36][non-primary source needed]
Famine
China suffered widespread famine between the years 1959 and 1961. The causes are disputed. Drought and poor weather played a part and the policies of the Great Leap Forward contributed to the famine, but the relative weights of each are in dispute. Estimates of deaths vary; according to official government statistics, there were 15 million deaths.[37] Unofficial estimates by scholars have estimated the number of famine victims to be between 20 and 43 million.[38]
In May 1962, the
The
Sautman also stated that the claim that Tibet was the region most hit by China's famine of 1959–1962 is based not on statistics gathered in Tibetan areas, but on anonymous refugee reports lacking in numerical specificity.[44] Sautman's conclusions recently subjected to criticism.[45]
ICJ Human rights report
Background
Under the 1951
Occupation and genocide
In 1960 the
The ICJ examined evidence relating to human rights within the structure of the
Cultural suppression
The Tibetans were not allowed to participate in the
In spite of claims by the Chinese that most of the damage to Tibet's institutions occurred subsequently during the
Criticism of report
According to various authors, the 1959 and 1960 ICJ reports date back to a time when that organization was funded by the CIA.
Establishment of TAR
In 1965, the area that had been under the control of the Dalai Lama's government from 1951 to 1959 (Ü-Tsang and western Kham) was renamed the
Cultural Revolution
The Cultural Revolution launched in 1966 was a catastrophe for Tibet, as it was for the rest of the PRC. Large numbers of Tibetans died violent deaths due to it, and the number of intact monasteries in Tibet was reduced from thousands to less than ten. Tibetan resentment towards the Chinese deepened.[58] Tibetans participated in the destruction, but it is not clear how many of them actually embraced the Communist ideology and how many participated out of fear of becoming targets themselves.[59] Resistors against the Cultural Revolution included Thrinley Chodron, a nun from Nyemo, who led an armed rebellion that spread through eighteen xians (counties) of the TAR, targeting CCP officials and Tibetan collaborators, that was ultimately suppressed by the PLA. Citing Tibetan Buddhist symbols which the rebels invoked, Shakya calls this 1969 revolt "a millenarian uprising, an insurgency characterized by a passionate desire to be rid of the oppressor."[60]
Demographic repercussions
Warren W. Smith, a broadcaster of
The Government of Tibet in Exile quotes an issue of People's Daily published in 1959 to claim that the Tibetan population has dropped significantly since 1959, counting the population of the Tibet Autonomous region but Qinghai, Gansu, and other regions inhabited by Tibetans, as the "Tibetan population". Compared as a whole to the 2000 numbers, the population in these regions has decreased, it says.[71] These findings are in conflict with a 1954 Chinese census report that counted ethnic Tibetans.[72] This is because in all of these provinces, Tibetans were not the only traditional ethnic group. This is held to be so especially in Qinghai, which has a historical mixture of different groups of ethnics. In 1949, Han Chinese made up 48% of the population, the rest of the ethnic groups make up 52% of the 1.5 million total population.[73] As of today, Han Chinese account for 54% of the total population of Qinghai, which is slightly higher than in 1949. Tibetans make up around 20% of the population of Qinghai.[citation needed] Detailed analysis of statistical data from Chinese and Tibetan emigrant sources revealed errors in estimates of Tibetan population by regions. Although it may contain errors, data from the Government of Tibet in Exile was found to be in better correspondence with the known facts than any other existing estimates. With respect to total population of the whole Tibet in 1953 and 1959, the Tibetan side appears to provide numbers that are too high, while the Chinese side provides numbers that are too low.[74]
On June 20, 1959, in Mussoorie during a press conference, the Dalai Lama stated: "The ultimate Chinese aim with regard to Tibet, as far as I can make out, seems to attempt the extermination of religion and culture and even the absorption of the Tibetan race...Besides the civilian and military personnel already in Tibet, five million Chinese settlers have arrived in eastern and north-eastern Tso, in addition to which four million Chinese settlers are planned to be sent to U and Sung provinces of Central Tibet. Many Tibetans have been deported, thereby resulting in the complete absorption of these Tibetans as a race, which is being undertaken by the Chinese." [75]
1976–1987: Rapprochement and internationalization
Following Mao's death in 1976, Deng Xiaoping launched initiatives of rapprochement with the exiled Tibetan leaders, hoping to persuade them to come to live in China. Ren Rong, who was Communist Party Secretary in Tibet, thought that Tibetans in Tibet were happy under Chinese Communist rule and that they shared the Chinese Communist views of the pre-Communist Tibetan rulers as oppressive despots. "By 1979 most of the estimated 600,000 monks and nuns were dead, disappeared, or imprisoned, and the majority of Tibet's 6,000 monasteries had been destroyed."[76] So, when delegations from the Tibetan government in exile visited Tibet in 1979–80, Chinese officials expected to impress the Tibetan exiles with the progress that had occurred since 1950 and with the contentment of the Tibetan populace. Ren even organized meetings in Lhasa to urge Tibetans to restrain their animosity towards the coming representatives of an old, oppressive regime. The Chinese, then, were astonished and embarrassed at the massive, tearful expressions of devotion which Tibetans made to the visiting Tibetan exiles. Thousands of Tibetans cried, prostrated, offered scarves to the visitors, and strove for a chance to touch the Dalai Lama's brother.[77]
These events also prompted Party Secretary
New meetings between Chinese officials and exiled leaders took place in 1981–1984, but no agreements could be reached.[80]
In 1986–1987, the Tibetan government in exile in Dharamshala launched a new drive to win international support for their cause as a human rights issue. In response, the United States House of Representatives in June 1987 passed a resolution in support of Tibetan human rights.[81] Between September 1987 and March 1989, four major demonstrations occurred in Lhasa against Chinese rule.[82] American Tibetologist Melvyn Goldstein considered the riots to be spontaneous mass expressions of Tibetan resentment, sparked in part by hope that the United States would soon provide support or pressure enabling Tibet to become independent.[83] In 1987, the Panchen Lama delivered a speech estimating the number of prison deaths in Qinghai at approximately 5 percent of the total population in the area.[84] The United States passed a 1988–1989 Foreign Relations Act which expressed support for Tibetan human rights.[81] The riots ironically discredited Hu's more liberal Tibetan policies and brought about a return to hard-line policies; Beijing even imposed martial law in Tibet in 1989. Emphasis on economic development brought increasing numbers of non-Tibetans to Lhasa, and the economy in Tibet became increasingly dominated by Han. Lhasa became a city where non-Tibetans equalled or outnumbered Tibetans.[85]
When the 10th Panchen Lama addressed the Tibet Autonomous Region Standing Committee Meeting of the National People's Congress in 1987, he detailed mass imprisonment and killings of Tibetans in Amdo (Qinghai): "there were between three to four thousand villages and towns, each having between three to four thousand families with four to five thousand people. From each town and village, about 800 to 1,000 people were imprisoned. Out of this, at least 300 to 400 people of them died in prison...In Golok area, many people were killed and their dead bodies were rolled down the hill into a big ditch. The soldiers told the family members and relatives of the dead people that they should all celebrate since the rebels had been wiped out. They were even forced to dance on the dead bodies. Soon after, they were also massacred with machine guns. They were all buried there"[86]
1988–present
In 1995, the Dalai Lama named 6-year-old Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as the 11th Panchen Lama without the approval of the government of China. The PRC named another child, Gyaincain Norbu, in conflict with the Dalai Lama's choice. Gyaincain Norbu was raised in Tibet and Beijing and makes frequent public appearances related to religion and politics. The PRC-selected Panchen Lama is rejected by exiled Tibetans who commonly refer to him as the "Panchen Zuma" (literally "fake Panchen Lama").[89] Gedhun Choekyi Nyima and his family are missing: kidnapped, says Amnesty International, or living under a secret identity for protection and privacy, says Beijing.[89]
Economic development
In 2000, the Chinese government launched its
The PRC government claims that its rule over Tibet has provided economic development to Tibetan people, and that the
The government, in turn, rejects claims that the lives of Tibetans have deteriorated, and states that the lives of Tibetans have been improved immensely compared to self-rule before 1950.[95] Despite China's claims that the lives of Tibetans have improved immensely, a 2004 book claimed some 3,000 Tibetans brave hardship and danger to flee into exile every year.[96] In addition, Human Rights Watch reports continued widespread abuses committed by Chinese security forces[97] and torture by Chinese police and security forces.[98]
The PRC claims that from 1951 to 2007, the Tibetan population in Lhasa-administered Tibet has increased from 1.2 million to almost 3 million. The
In 2008 the Chinese government "launched a 570-million-yuan (81.43 million U.S. dollars) project to preserve 22 historical and cultural heritage sites in Tibet, including the Zhaxi Lhunbo Lamasery as well as the Jokhang, Ramogia, Sanyai and Samgya-Goutog monasteries."[102]
Tibetan language
According to Barry Sautman, 92–94% of ethnic Tibetans speak
Human rights in Tibet
After the 2008 unrest, Tibetan-populated areas of China remained tightly sealed off from outside scrutiny, according to Amnesty International. While Chinese authorities announced after the protests that over 1,000 individuals detained had been released, overseas Tibetan organizations claimed that at least several hundred remained in detention by the start of 2009. Following the detentions were reports of torture and other ill-treatment in detention, some cases resulting in death.[108] Religious repression included locking down major monasteries and nunneries, and a propaganda campaign where local authorities renewed “Patriotic Education,” which required Tibetans to participate in criticism sessions of the Dalai Lama and sign written denunciations of him, according to Amnesty's 2009 China report. Tibetan members of the Chinese Communist Party were also targeted, including being made to remove their children from Tibet exile community schools where they would have received a religious education.[108] According to former political prisoners Tibet is virtually a big prison.[109]
2008 unrest
Protests in March, 2008 developed into riots in which Tibetan mobs attacked Han and Hui people in Lhasa. The Chinese government reacted curtly, imposing curfews and pressuring journalists in Lhasa to leave the region.[110] The international response was measured, with a number of leaders expressing concern. Some people protested in large European and North American cities and chanted slogans.
For a time after the 2008 unrest, Tibetan-populated areas of China remained off-limits to journalists, and major monasteries and nunneries were locked down, according to Amnesty International. While Chinese authorities announced after the unrest that over 1,000 individuals detained had been released, Tibetan exile organizations claimed that at least several hundred remained in detention by the start of 2009. Tibetan members of the Chinese Communist Party were told to remove their children from Tibet exile community schools.[108]
Ethnic composition
The issue of the proportion of the Han population in Tibet is a politically sensitive one and is disputed, involving the
The Government of Tibet in Exile has said that government policies are sinicizing Tibet by encouraging the migration of non-ethnic Tibetans, especially Han and Hui, so that they outnumber ethnic Tibetans in the Tibetan region.[111] Some non-Tibetans migrating to the area may end up assimilating into and adapting to the Tibetan culture of the area to a degree, given its significance in the local culture. But if they adapt a more distinct identity to the Tibetans, Tibetan culture would be more likely to become endangered, particularly if Tibetans are the minority. The PRC gives the number of Tibetans in the Tibet Autonomous Region as 2.4 million, as opposed to 190,000 non-Tibetans, and the number of Tibetans in all Tibetan autonomous entities combined (slightly smaller than the Greater Tibet claimed by exiled Tibetans) as 5.0 million, as opposed to 2.3 million non-Tibetans. In the TAR itself, much of the Han population is to be found in Lhasa.[112]
This statistic is in dispute primarily based on the distinction between the area often referred to as "
Some of Tibet's towns and villages are located in India and Nepal. The total population for Tibetans in India is given at 94,203, and 13,514 in Nepal. One example of this is the city of Leh in the Indian union territory of Ladakh, with a population of 27,513. The people of Leh are ethnic Tibetan, speaking Ladakhi, an East Tibetan language. Along with this, there are several Tibetan villages in northern Nepal. These regions are currently not claimed by Tibetan Exile Groups.[114][115][116]
The Government of Tibet in Exile disputes most demographic statistics released by the PRC government since they do not include members of the
Sergius L. Kuzmin's review of different sources revealed that during the Cultural Revolution the Tibetan population decreased by between 3% and 30%.[123]
Barry Sautman accused pro-independence forces of wanting the Tibetan areas cleansed of Han and the Dalai Lama of consistently misrepresenting the present situation as one of a Han majority. The Tibetan countryside, where three-fourths of the population lives, has very few non-Tibetans.[124]
Sautman also stated:
- [The settlers] are not personally subsidized by the state; although like urban Tibetans, they are indirectly subsidized by infrastructure development that favors the towns. Some 85% of Han who migrate to Tibet to establish businesses fail; they generally leave within two to three years. Those who survive economically offer competition to local Tibetan business people, but a comprehensive study in Lhasa has shown that non-Tibetans have pioneered small and medium enterprise sectors that some Tibetans have later entered and made use of their local knowledge to prosper.
- Tibetans are not simply an underclass; there is a substantial Tibetan middle class, based in government service, tourism, commerce, and small-scale manufacturing/ transportation. There are also many unemployed or under-employed Tibetans, but almost no unemployed or underemployed Han because those who cannot find work leave.
In a Writenet paper written for the
The figures show that since the early 1960s, the Tibetan population has been increasing, probably for the first time for centuries. What seems to follow from this is that the TGIE's allegations of population reduction due to Chinese rule probably have some validity for the 1950s but are greatly exaggerated. However, since the 1960s, Chinese rule has had the effect of increasing the population of the Tibetans, not decreasing it, largely due to a modernization process that has improved the standard of living and lowered infant, maternity and other mortality rates.
Statistics according to the National Bureau of Statistics of China
Major ethnic groups in Greater Tibet by region, 2000 census. | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | Tibetans
|
Han Chinese | others | ||||
Tibet Autonomous Region: | 2,616,329 | 2,427,168 | 92.8% | 158,570 | 6.1% | 30,591 | 1.2% |
– Lhasa PLC | 474,499 | 387,124 | 81.6% | 80,584 | 17.0% | 6,791 | 1.4% |
– Qamdo Prefecture
|
586,152 | 563,831 | 96.2% | 19,673 | 3.4% | 2,648 | 0.5% |
– Shannan Prefecture
|
318,106 | 305,709 | 96.1% | 10,968 | 3.4% | 1,429 | 0.4% |
– Xigazê Prefecture
|
634,962 | 618,270 | 97.4% | 12,500 | 2.0% | 4,192 | 0.7% |
– Nagqu Prefecture
|
366,710 | 357,673 | 97.5% | 7,510 | 2.0% | 1,527 | 0.4% |
– Ngari Prefecture | 77,253 | 73,111 | 94.6% | 3,543 | 4.6% | 599 | 0.8% |
– Nyingchi Prefecture
|
158,647 | 121,450 | 76.6% | 23,792 | 15.0% | 13,405 | 8.4% |
Qinghai Province: | 4,822,963 | 1,086,592 | 22.5% | 2,606,050 | 54.0% | 1,130,321 | 23.4% |
– Xining PLC | 1,849,713 | 96,091 | 5.2% | 1,375,013 | 74.3% | 378,609 | 20.5% |
– Haidong Prefecture
|
1,391,565 | 128,025 | 9.2% | 783,893 | 56.3% | 479,647 | 34.5% |
– Haibei AP | 258,922 | 62,520 | 24.1% | 94,841 | 36.6% | 101,561 | 39.2% |
– Huangnan AP | 214,642 | 142,360 | 66.3% | 16,194 | 7.5% | 56,088 | 26.1% |
– Hainan AP | 375,426 | 235,663 | 62.8% | 105,337 | 28.1% | 34,426 | 9.2% |
– Golog AP | 137,940 | 126,395 | 91.6% | 9,096 | 6.6% | 2,449 | 1.8% |
– Gyêgu AP
|
262,661 | 255,167 | 97.1% | 5,970 | 2.3% | 1,524 | 0.6% |
– Haixi AP | 332,094 | 40,371 | 12.2% | 215,706 | 65.0% | 76,017 | 22.9% |
Tibetan areas in Sichuan province | |||||||
– Ngawa AP | 847,468 | 455,238 | 53.7% | 209,270 | 24.7% | 182,960 | 21.6% |
– Garzê AP | 897,239 | 703,168 | 78.4% | 163,648 | 18.2% | 30,423 | 3.4% |
– Muli AC | 124,462 | 60,679 | 48.8% | 27,199 | 21.9% | 36,584 | 29.4% |
Tibetan areas in Yunnan province | |||||||
– Dêqên AP
|
353,518 | 117,099 | 33.1% | 57,928 | 16.4% | 178,491 | 50.5% |
Tibetan areas in Gansu province | |||||||
– Gannan AP | 640,106 | 329,278 | 51.4% | 267,260 | 41.8% | 43,568 | 6.8% |
– Tianzhu AC
|
221,347 | 66,125 | 29.9% | 139,190 | 62.9% | 16,032 | 7.2% |
Total for Greater Tibet: | |||||||
With Xining and Haidong | 10,523,432 | 5,245,347 | 49.8% | 3,629,115 | 34.5% | 1,648,970 | 15.7% |
Without Xining and Haidong | 7,282,154 | 5,021,231 | 69.0% | 1,470,209 | 20.2% | 790,714 | 10.9% |
This table
P = Prefecture; AP = Autonomous prefecture; PLC = Prefecture-level city; AC = Autonomous county.
Excludes members of the People's Liberation Army in active service.
Han settlers in the cities have steadily increased since then. But a preliminary analysis of the 2005 mini-census shows only a modest increase in Han population in the TAR from 2000 to 2005 and little change in eastern Tibet.
See also
References
Citations
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.The United States also took advantage of the Dalai Lama's having left Tibet by having the CIA revive its Cold War propaganda machine, creating supposedly popular organizations such as the American Emergency Committee for Tibetan Refugees, prodding its clandestinely funded Cold War human rights organizations such as the International Commission of Jurists to prepare propagandistic reports attacking China
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.Based on the documentation and named respondents, the authors present the tale of the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in secretly bankrolling the formation of the ICJ as an instrument of the cold war. (...) Tolley shows that the tainted source of funding was unknown to most ICJ officers and members
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.The ICJ itself grew out of a group created by American intelligence agents whose purpose was disseminating anti-communist propaganda. It too has received funds from the CIA, which is not a notable rights organization, nor, which is more to the point, particularly noted for its interest in truth. The 1960 LIC report, Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic (ICJ, Geneva: 1990), shows strong signs of bias in accepting or rejecting the testimonies cited
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- ^ a b Barry Sautman, June Teufel Dreyer, Contemporary Tibet: Politics, Development, And Society In A Disputed Region p. 239
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For a summary of other estimates, please refer to this link - ^ People's Daily, Beijing, 10 November 1959, in Population transfer and control Archived 2011-02-24 at Wikiwix
- ^ 1954 Chinese Census Report Archived 2009-08-05 at the Wayback Machine (in Chinese)
- ^ (in Chinese) Qinghai Population [2]
- ^ Kuzmin, S.L. Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation. Dharamsala, LTWA, 2011, pp. 334–340
- ^ "Tibet Justice Center - Legal Materials on Tibet - Governmental and NGOs – ICJ Report on the Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law (excerpt) (1959) [p. 342]". tibetjustice.org. Retrieved 26 September 2015.
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The economy was totally devastated, and the Cultural Revolution had succeeded in almost completely destroying Tibet's cultural heritage. By 1979 most of the estimated 600,000 monks and nuns were dead, disappeared, or imprisoned, and the majority of Tibet's 6,000 monasteries had been destroyed.
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- ^ Goldstein 1997, pp. 63–66
- ^ "The Tibet Question". Archived from the original on 2006-11-06. Retrieved 2006-10-21. Tibet, China and the United States: Reflections on the Tibet Question,by Melvyn C. Goldstein
- ^ Goldstein 1997, pp. 67–74
- ^ a b Goldstein 1997, pp. 75–78
- ^ Goldstein 1997, pp. 79–83
- ^ Goldstein 1997, pp. 83–87
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- ^ Goldstein 1997, pp. 87–99
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