Jim Crow laws
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The Jim Crow laws were
In practice, Jim Crow laws mandated racial segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America and in some others, beginning in the 1870s. Jim Crow laws were upheld in 1896 in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson, in which the Supreme Court laid out its "separate but equal" legal doctrine concerning facilities for African Americans. Moreover, public education had essentially been segregated since its establishment in most of the South after the Civil War in 1861–1865. Companion laws excluded almost all African Americans from the vote in the South and deprived them of any representative government.
Although in theory, the "equal" segregation doctrine governed public facilities and transportation too, facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to facilities for
In 1954, segregation of public schools (state-sponsored) was declared unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.[10][11][12] In some states, it took many years to implement this decision, while the Warren Court continued to rule against Jim Crow legislation in other cases such as Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States (1964).[13] In general, the remaining Jim Crow laws were overturned by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Etymology
The earliest known use of the phrase "Jim Crow law" can be dated to 1884 in a newspaper article summarizing congressional debate.
Origins
In January 1865, an amendment to the Constitution abolishing slavery in the United States was proposed by Congress and ratified as the Thirteenth Amendment on December 18, 1865.[17]
During the
The Compromise of 1877 to gain Southern support in the presidential election resulted in the government withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained political power in every Southern state.[21] These Southern, white, "Redeemer" governments legislated Jim Crow laws, officially segregating the country's population. Jim Crow laws were a manifestation of authoritarian rule specifically directed at one racial group.[22]
Black people were still elected to local offices throughout the 1880s in local areas with large black populations, but their voting was suppressed for state and national elections. States passed laws to make voter registration and electoral rules more restrictive, with the result that political participation by most black people and many poor
Voter turnout dropped dramatically through the South as a result of these measures. In Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised the majority of the state's population. By 1910, only 730 black people were registered, less than 0.5% of eligible black men. "In 27 of the state's 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer; in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was."
Those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, and their interests were overlooked. While public schools had been established by Reconstruction legislatures for the first time in most Southern states, those for black children were consistently underfunded compared to schools for white children, even when considered within the strained finances of the postwar South where the decreasing price of cotton kept the agricultural economy at a low.[27]
Like schools, public libraries for black people were underfunded, if they existed at all, and they were often stocked with secondhand books and other resources.[8][28] These facilities were not introduced for African Americans in the South until the first decade of the 20th century.[29] Throughout the Jim Crow era, libraries were only available sporadically.[30] Prior to the 20th century, most libraries established for African Americans were school-library combinations.[30] Many public libraries for both European-American and African-American patrons in this period were founded as the result of middle-class activism aided by matching grants from the Carnegie Foundation.[30]
In some cases, progressive measures intended to reduce election fraud, such as the
In the Jim Crow context, the
The Wilson administration introduced segregation in federal offices, despite much protest from African-American leaders and white progressive groups in the north and midwest.
How complete the union has become and how dear to all of us, how unquestioned, how benign and majestic, as state after state has been added to this, our great family of free men![37]
In sharp contrast to Wilson, a Washington Bee editorial wondered if the "reunion" of 1913 was a reunion of those who fought for "the extinction of slavery" or a reunion of those who fought to "perpetuate slavery and who are now employing every artifice and argument known to deceit" to present emancipation as a failed venture.[37] Historian David W. Blight observed that the "Peace Jubilee" at which Wilson presided at Gettysburg in 1913 "was a Jim Crow reunion, and white supremacy might be said to have been the silent, invisible master of ceremonies".[37]
In Texas, several towns adopted residential segregation laws between 1910 and the 1920s. Legal strictures called for segregated water fountains and restrooms.[37] The exclusion of African Americans also found support in the Republican lily-white movement.[38]
Historical development
Early attempts to break Jim Crow
The
In 1887,
In 1890, Louisiana passed a law requiring separate accommodations for colored and white passengers on railroads. Louisiana law distinguished between "white", "black" and "colored" (that is, people of mixed European and African ancestry). The law had already specified that black people could not ride with white people, but colored people could ride with white people before 1890. A group of concerned black, colored and white citizens in New Orleans formed an association dedicated to rescinding the law. The group persuaded Homer Plessy to test it; he was a man of color who was of fair complexion and one-eighth "Negro" in ancestry.[42]
In 1892, Plessy bought a first-class ticket from New Orleans on the East Louisiana Railway. Once he had boarded the train, he informed the train conductor of his racial lineage and took a seat in the whites-only car. He was directed to leave that car and sit instead in the "coloreds only" car. Plessy refused and was immediately arrested. The Citizens Committee of New Orleans fought the case all the way to the United States Supreme Court. They lost in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), in which the Court ruled that "separate but equal" facilities were constitutional. The finding contributed to 58 more years of legalized discrimination against black and colored people in the United States.[42]
In 1908, Congress defeated an attempt to introduce segregated streetcars into the capital.[43]
Racism in the United States and defenses of Jim Crow
White Southerners encountered problems in learning free labor management after the end of slavery, and they resented African Americans, who represented the
One rationale for the systematic exclusion of African Americans from southern public society was that it was for their own protection. An early 20th-century scholar suggested that allowing black people to attend white schools would mean "constantly subjecting them to adverse feeling and opinion", which might lead to "a morbid race consciousness".
Justifications for white supremacy were provided by scientific racism and negative stereotypes of African Americans. Social segregation, from housing to laws against interracial chess games, was justified as a way to prevent black men from having sex with white women and in particular the rapacious Black Buck stereotype.[47]
World War II and post-war era
In 1944,
Numerous boycotts and demonstrations against segregation had occurred throughout the 1930s and 1940s. The
After World War II, people of color increasingly challenged segregation, as they believed they had more than earned the right to be treated as full citizens because of their military service and sacrifices. The civil rights movement was energized by a number of flashpoints, including the 1946 police beating and blinding of World War II veteran Isaac Woodard while he was in U.S. Army uniform. In 1948 President Harry S. Truman issued Executive Order 9981, ending racial discrimination in the armed services.[51] That same year, Silas Herbert Hunt enrolled in the University of Arkansas, effectively starting the desegregation of education in the South.[52]
As the civil rights movement gained momentum and used federal courts to attack Jim Crow statutes, the white-dominated governments of many of the southern states countered by passing alternative forms of resistance.[53]
Decline and removal
Historian William Chafe has explored the defensive techniques developed inside the African-American community to avoid the worst features of Jim Crow as expressed in the legal system, unbalanced economic power, and intimidation and psychological pressure. Chafe says "protective socialization by black people themselves" was created inside the community in order to accommodate white-imposed sanctions while subtly encouraging challenges to those sanctions. Known as "walking the tightrope", such efforts at bringing about change were only slightly effective before the 1920s.
However, this did build the foundation for later generations to advance racial equality and de-segregation. Chafe argued that the places essential for change to begin were institutions, particularly black churches, which functioned as centers for community-building and discussion of politics. Additionally, some all-black communities, such as Mound Bayou, Mississippi and Ruthville, Virginia served as sources of pride and inspiration for black society as a whole. Over time, pushback and open defiance of the oppressive existing laws grew, until it reached a boiling point in the aggressive, large-scale activism of the 1950s civil rights movement.[54]
Brown v. Board of Education
The NAACP Legal Defense Committee (a group that became independent of the NAACP) – and its lawyer, Thurgood Marshall – brought the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954) before the U.S. Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren.[10][11][12] In its pivotal 1954 decision, the Warren Court unanimously (9–0) overturned the 1896 Plessy decision.[11] The Supreme Court found that legally mandated (de jure) public school segregation was unconstitutional. The decision had far-reaching social ramifications.[55]
Integrating collegiate sports
Racial integration of all-white collegiate sports teams was high on the Southern agenda in the 1950s and 1960s. Involved were issues of equality, racism, and the alumni demand for the top players needed to win high-profile games. The Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) of flagship state universities in the Southeast took the lead. First they started to schedule integrated teams from the North. Finally, ACC schools – typically under pressure from boosters and civil rights groups – integrated their teams.[56] With an alumni base that dominated local and state politics, society and business, the ACC schools were successful in their endeavor – as Pamela Grundy argues, they had learned how to win:
- The widespread admiration that athletic ability inspired would help transform athletic fields from grounds of symbolic play to forces for social change, places where a wide range of citizens could publicly and at times effectively challenge the assumptions that cast them as unworthy of full participation in U.S. society. While athletic successes would not rid society of prejudice or stereotype – black athletes would continue to confront racial slurs...[minority star players demonstrated] the discipline, intelligence, and poise to contend for position or influence in every arena of national life.[57]
Public arena
In 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a city bus to a white man in Montgomery, Alabama. This was not the first time this happened – for example, Parks was inspired by 15-year-old Claudette Colvin doing the same thing nine months earlier[58] – but the Parks act of civil disobedience was chosen, symbolically, as an important catalyst in the growth of the post-1954 civil rights movement; activists built the Montgomery bus boycott around it, which lasted more than a year and resulted in desegregation of the privately run buses in the city. Civil rights protests and actions, together with legal challenges, resulted in a series of legislative and court decisions which contributed to undermining the Jim Crow system.[59]
End of legal segregation
The decisive action ending segregation came when Congress in bipartisan fashion overcame Southern filibusters to pass the
SCLC, student activists and smaller local organizations staged demonstrations across the South. National attention focused on Birmingham, Alabama, where protesters deliberately provoked Bull Connor and his police forces by using young teenagers as demonstrators – and Connor arrested 900 on one day alone. The next day Connor unleashed billy clubs, police dogs, and high-pressure water hoses to disperse and punish the young demonstrators with a brutality that horrified the nation. It was very bad for business, and for the image of a modernizing progressive urban South. President John F. Kennedy, who had been calling for moderation, threatened to use federal troops to restore order in Birmingham. The result in Birmingham was compromise by which the new mayor opened the library, golf courses, and other city facilities to both races, against the backdrop of church bombings and assassinations.[61]
In summer 1963, there were 800 demonstrations in 200 southern cities and towns, with over 100,000 participants, and 15,000 arrests. In Alabama in June 1963, Governor George Wallace escalated the crisis by defying court orders to admit the first two black students to the University of Alabama.[62] Kennedy responded by sending Congress a comprehensive civil rights bill, and ordered Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy to file federal lawsuits against segregated schools, and to deny funds for discriminatory programs. Martin Luther King launched a huge march on Washington in August 1963, bringing out 200,000 demonstrators in front of the Lincoln Memorial, at the time the largest political assembly in the nation's history. The Kennedy administration now gave full-fledged support to the civil rights movement, but powerful southern congressmen blocked any legislation.[63]
After Kennedy was assassinated, President Lyndon B. Johnson called for immediate passage of Kennedy civil rights legislation as a memorial to the martyred president. Johnson formed a coalition with Northern Republicans that led to passage in the House, and with the help of Republican Senate leader Everett Dirksen with passage in the Senate early in 1964. For the first time in history, the southern filibuster was broken and the Senate finally passed its version on June 19 by vote of 73 to 27.[64]
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was the most powerful affirmation of equal rights ever made by Congress. It guaranteed access to public accommodations such as restaurants and places of amusement, authorized the Justice Department to bring suits to desegregate facilities in schools, gave new powers to the
In January 1964, President Lyndon Johnson met with civil rights leaders. On January 8, during his first
On July 2, 1964, Johnson signed the historic Civil Rights Act of 1964.
By 1965, efforts to break the grip of state disenfranchisement by education for voter registration in southern counties had been underway for some time, but had achieved only modest success overall. In some areas of the Deep South, white resistance made these efforts almost entirely ineffectual. The murder of the three voting-rights activists in Mississippi in 1964 and the state's refusal to prosecute the murderers, along with numerous other acts of violence and terrorism against black people, had gained national attention. Finally, the unprovoked attack on March 7, 1965, by county and state troopers on peaceful Alabama marchers crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge en route from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery, persuaded the President and Congress to overcome Southern legislators' resistance to effective voting rights enforcement legislation. President Johnson issued a call for a strong voting rights law and hearings soon began on the bill that would become the Voting Rights Act.[72]
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 ended legally sanctioned state barriers to voting for all federal, state and local elections. It also provided for federal oversight and monitoring of counties with historically low minority voter turnout. Years of enforcement have been needed to overcome resistance, and additional legal challenges have been made in the courts to ensure the ability of voters to elect candidates of their choice. For instance, many cities and counties introduced at-large election of council members, which resulted in many cases of diluting minority votes and preventing election of minority-supported candidates.[73]
In 2013, the Roberts Court, in Shelby County v. Holder, removed the requirement established by the Voting Rights Act that Southern states needed Federal approval for changes in voting policies. Several states immediately made changes in their laws restricting voting access.[74]
Influence and aftermath
African American life
The Jim Crow laws and the high rate of lynchings in the South were major factors that led to the Great Migration during the first half of the 20th century. Because opportunities were very limited in the South, African Americans moved in great numbers to cities in Northeastern, Midwestern, and Western states to seek better lives.
African American athletes faced much discrimination during the Jim Crow era with white opposition leading to their exclusion from most organized sporting competitions.
The boxers
Interracial marriage
Although sometimes counted among Jim Crow laws of the South, statutes such as
Jury trials
The Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution grants criminal defendants the right to a trial by a jury of their peers. While federal law required that convictions could only be granted by a unanimous jury for federal crimes, states were free to set their own jury requirements. All but two states, Oregon and Louisiana, opted for unanimous juries for conviction. Oregon and Louisiana, however, allowed juries of at least 10–2 to decide a criminal conviction. Louisiana's law was amended in 2018 to require a unanimous jury for criminal convictions, effective in 2019. Prior to that amendment, the law had been seen as a remnant of Jim Crow laws, because it allowed minority voices on a jury to be marginalized. In 2020, the Supreme Court found, in Ramos v. Louisiana, that unanimous jury votes are required for criminal convictions at state levels, thereby nullifying Oregon's remaining law, and overturning previous cases in Louisiana.[77]
Later court cases
In 1971, the U.S. Supreme Court (the Burger Court), in Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, upheld desegregation busing of students to achieve integration.
Interpretation of the Constitution and its application to minority rights continues to be controversial as Court membership changes. Observers such as Ian F. Lopez believe that in the 2000s, the Supreme Court has become more protective of the status quo.[78]
Felony disenfranchisement
Mississippi Today discusses the present-day Jim Crow legacy of felony disenfranchisement, and states that part of Mississippi’s 1890 constitution was not erased by the Civil Rights Movement during the 1960s. The article states the constitutional felony disenfranchisement clause "takes away — for life — the right to vote upon conviction for several low-level crimes, like theft and bribery, that the 1890 drafters felt would be mostly committed by Black people."[79]
International
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There is evidence that the government of Nazi Germany took inspiration from the Jim Crow laws when writing the Nuremberg Laws.[80]
Remembrance
Ferris State University in Big Rapids, Michigan, houses the Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia, an extensive collection of everyday items that promoted racial segregation or presented racial stereotypes of African Americans, for the purpose of academic research and education about their cultural influence.[81]
See also
- Anti-miscegenation laws
- Apartheid
- Black Codes in the United States
- Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era
- Group Areas Act
- Jim Crow economy
- List of Jim Crow law examples by state
- Lynching
- Mass racial violence in the United States
- Penal labor
- Racial segregation in the United States
- Racism in the United States
- Second-class citizen
- Sundown town
- Timeline of the civil rights movement
- The New Jim Crow
Footnotes
- ISBN 0766012972.
- ISBN 978-0-7660-7914-4.
- ^ Bubar, Joe (March 9, 2020). "The Jim Crow North", Upfront Magazine - Scholastic. Retrieved June 7, 2021.
- ^ Discrimination in Access to Public Places: A Survey of State and Federal Accommodations Laws, 7 N.Y.U. Rev.L. & Soc.Change 215, 238 (1978).
- ISBN 978-0-230-61138-2.
- S2CID 213551748.
- ^ a b Perdue, Theda (October 28, 2011). "Legacy of Jim Crow for Southern Native Americans". C-SPAN. Retrieved November 27, 2018.
- ^ ISBN 9780807833681. Retrieved November 27, 2018.
- JSTOR 20068694. Archived from the original(PDF) on April 12, 2019. Retrieved November 27, 2018.
- ^ a b "Brown v. Board of Education". Landmark Supreme Court Cases. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
- ^ a b c "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka". Oyez. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
- ^ a b "Two Landmark Decisions in the Fight for Equality and Justice". National Museum of African American History and Culture. October 11, 2017. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
- ^ "Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States". Oyez. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
- ^ "Congressional". Sioux City Journal. December 18, 1884. p. 2.
- ^ a b c Woodward, C. Vann, and McFeely, William S. (2001), The Strange Career of Jim Crow. p. 7.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
New Orleans, Dec 20. – The Supreme Court yesterday declared constitutional the law passed two years ago and known as the 'Jim Crow' law, making it compulsory on railroads to provide separate cars for black people.
- ISBN 978-0-7619-2764-8.
- ISBN 978-0-19-024919-9.
- ISBN 978-0-593-13404-7.
- ISBN 978-0-8078-3324-7.
- ^ Woodward, C. Vann, and McFeely, William S. The Strange Career of Jim Crow. 2001, p. 6.
- ISSN 1094-2939.
- ^ a b Perman, Michael. Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001, Introduction.
- ^ a b Kousser, J. Morgan,The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974.
- ^ a b Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", 2000, pp. 12, 27. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
- ^ Glenn Feldman, The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004, pp. 135–36.
- ISBN 978-0230104822.
- ^ Buddy, J., & Williams, M. (2005). "A dream deferred: school libraries and segregation", American Libraries, 36(2), 33–35.
- ^ Battles, D. M. (2009). The History of Public Library Access for African Americans in the South, or, Leaving Behind the Plow. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press.
- ^ a b c Fultz, M. (2006). "Black Public Libraries in the South in the Era of De Jure Segregation". Libraries & The Cultural Record, 41(3), 338.
- ^ Holt, Thomas (1979). Black over White: Negro Political Leadership in South Carolina during Reconstruction. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
- ISBN 978-0-252-00813-9.
- ^ Tomlins, Christopher L. The United States Supreme Court: The Pursuit of Justice. 2005, p. 195.
- ^ King, Desmond. Separate and Unequal: Black Americans and the US Federal Government. 1995, p. 3.
- ISBN 978-0-495-90979-8.
- ^ Schulte Nordholt, J. W., and Rowen, Herbert H., Woodrow Wilson: A Life for World Peace. 1991, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory, pp. 9–11.
- S2CID 213551748.
- ^ "Colored Methodists Indignant Over the Expulsion of Their Senior Bishop From a Florida Railway Car", The New York Times, 30 March 1882: "Colored men of spirit and culture are resisting the conductors, who attempt to drive them into the 'Jim Crow cars,' and they sometimes succeed."
- ^ "Constitutional Amendments and Major Civil Rights Acts of Congress Referenced in Black Americans in Congress". History, Art & Archives. US House of Representatives. Retrieved January 27, 2018.
- ^ New York Times, 30 July 1887: "No 'Jim Crow' Cars": "The answer further avers that the cars provided for the colored passengers are equally as safe, comfortable, clean, well ventilated, and cared for as those provided for whites. The difference, it says, if any, relates to matters aesthetical only."
- ^ a b "Plessy v. Ferguson". Know Louisiana. Louisiana Endowment for the Humanities. Archived from the original on July 30, 2018. Retrieved January 27, 2018.
- James Thomas Heflin(Ala.) to introduce racially segregated streetcars to the capital's transport system. The New York Times, 23 February 1908: "'Jim Crow Cars' Denied by Congress".
- ^ John McCutheon. The Mysterious Stranger and Other Cartoons by John T. McCutcheon, New York, McClure, Phillips & Co. 1905.
- Gates, Henry Louis and Appiah, Anthony. Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. 1999, p. 1211.
- ^ Murphy, Edgar Gardner. The Problems of the Present South. 1910, p. 37.
- ISBN 978-0807058275.
- ^ "Full text of Korematsu v. United States opinion". Findlaw.
- ^ Steele v. Louisville, Findlaw.
- ^ "Former Pa. House speaker K. Leroy Irvis dies". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Archived from the original on March 19, 2022. Retrieved January 27, 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-415-89449-4.
- ^ Buckelew, Richard A. "Silas Herbert Hunt". Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture. Butler Center. Retrieved June 4, 2018.
- ^ Bartley, Numan V., The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950s (LSU Press, 1999).
- ^ Chafe, William H., "Presidential Address: 'The Gods Bring Threads to Webs Begun'." Journal of American History 86.4 (2000): 1531–51. Online
- ^ Patterson, James T., Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (2002).
- ^ Martin, Charles H., "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow in Southern College Sports: The Case of the Atlantic Coast Conference". North Carolina Historical Review, 76.3 (1999): 253–84. online
- ^ Pamela Grundy, Learning to win: Sports, education, and social change in twentieth-century North Carolina (University of North Carolina Press, 2003), p. 297, online Archived December 15, 2018, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ "The Other Rosa Parks: Now 73, Claudette Colvin Was First to Refuse Giving Up Seat on Montgomery Bus". Democracy Now!.
- ^ "Jim Crow Laws and Racial Segregation". VCU Libraries Social Welfare History Project. Virginia Commonwealth University. January 20, 2011. Retrieved January 27, 2018.
- ^ Allison, Graham, Framing the South: Hollywood, television, and race during the Civil Rights Struggle (2001).
- ^ McWhorter, Diane, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (2001), online free to borrow
- ^ Carter, Dan T. The politics of rage: George Wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of American politics (LSU Press, 2000).
- ^ Robert E. Gilbert, "John F. Kennedy and civil rights for black Americans." Presidential Studies Quarterly 12.3 (1982): 386–99. Online
- ^ Pauley, Garth E., "Presidential rhetoric and interest group politics: Lyndon B. Johnson and the Civil Rights Act of 1964." Southern Journal of Communication 63.1 (1997): 1–19.
- ^ Grantham, Dewey W., The South in Modern America (1994), 228–45.
- ^ Barrow, David, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (1989).
- ^ Theoharis, Jeanne, A More Beautiful and Terrible History: The Uses and Misuses of Civil Rights History (2018).
- ^ For primary sources see John A. Kirk, ed., The Civil Rights Movement: A Documentary Reader (2020).
- ^ a b c d "Civil Rights Act of 1964 – CRA – Title VII – Equal Employment Opportunities – 42 US Code Chapter 21". Archived from the original on December 29, 2011. Retrieved October 2, 2008.
- University of Texas. Archived from the originalon July 20, 2012.
- ^ Lopez, Ian F. Haney (February 1, 2007). "A nation of minorities: race, ethnicity, and reactionary colorblindness". Stanford Law Review.
- ^ "Introduction To Federal Voting Rights Laws" Archived March 4, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. United States Department of Justice.
- ^ Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (2002)
- ^ Newkirk II, Vann R. (July 10, 2018). "How a Pivotal Voting Rights Act Case Broke America". The Atlantic.
- ISBN 1-280-65507-0.
- ^ a b "Loving v. Virginia". Oyez. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
- ^ Lopez, German (November 6, 2018). "Louisiana votes to eliminate Jim Crow jury law with Amendment 2". Vox. Retrieved April 20, 2020.
- ^ Lopez, Ian F. Haney (February 1, 2007), "A nation of minorities: race, ethnicity, and reactionary colorblindness", Stanford Law Review
- ^ "How Mississippi's Jim Crow Laws Still Haunt Black Voters Today". April 12, 2024.
- ISBN 9780593230251.
- ^ Carter, Kelley L. (February 5, 2001). "Relics of Racism: Big Rapids Museum Lets Its Memorabilia Tell the Ugly Story of Jim Crow in America". Archived from the original on December 24, 2007. Retrieved March 21, 2008.
Further reading
- ISBN 978-1-59558-103-7.
- ISBN 0-1950-3756-1
- Barnes, Catherine A. Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Transit. New York: ISBN 0-2310-5380-0
- Bartley, Numan V. The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950s. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1969.
- Bond, Horace Mann. "The Extent and Character of Separate Schools in the United States." Journal of Negro Education vol. 4 (July 1935), pp. 321–327.
- Brown, Nikki L.M., and Barry M. Stentiford, eds. The Jim Crow Encyclopedia (Greenwood, 2008)
- Chin, Gabriel, and Karthikeyan, Hrishi. Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asians, 1910 to 1950, 9 Asian L.J. 1 (2002)
- Campbell, Nedra. More Justice, More Peace: The Black Person's Guide to the American Legal System. Lawrence Hill Books, 2002. ISBN 1-5565-2468-4
- Cole, Stephanie and Natalie J. Ring (eds.), The Folly of Jim Crow: Rethinking the Segregated South. College Station, TX: ISBN 1-6034-4582-X
- Dailey, Jane; Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth and Simon, Bryant (eds.), Jumpin' Jim Crow: Southern Politics from Civil War to Civil Rights. Princeton, NJ: ISBN 0-6910-0192-8
- Fairclough, Adam. "'Being in the Field of Education and Also Being a Negro ... Seems ... Tragic': Black Teachers in the Jim Crow South." The Journal of American History vol. 87 (June 2000), pp. 65–91.
- Feldman, Glenn. Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949. Tuscaloosa, AL: ISBN 0-8173-0984-5
- Fireside, Harvey. Separate and Unequal: Homer Plessy and the Supreme Court Decision That Legalized Racism. New York: Carroll & Graf, 2003. ISBN 0-7867-1293-7
- ISBN 0-0601-5851-4
- Gaines, Kevin. Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century. University of North Carolina Press, 1996. ISBN 0-8078-2239-6
- Gaston, Paul M. The New South Creed: A Study in Southern Mythmaking. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970.
- ISBN 0-5255-5953-1
- Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920. Chapel Hill, NC: ISBN 0-8078-2287-6
- Griffin, John Howard. Black Like Me. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961.
- Haws, Robert, ed. The Age of Segregation: Race Relations in the South, 1890–1945 University Press of Mississippi, 1978.
- Hackney, Sheldon. Populism to Progressivism in Alabama. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969.
- Johnson, Charles S. Patterns of Negro Segregation. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1943.
- ISBN 0-1951-2903-2
- ISBN 0-3945-2778-X
- Lopez, Ian F. Haney. "A nation of minorities": race, ethnicity, and reactionary colorblindness. Stanford Law Review, February 1, 2007.
- Kantrowitz, Stephen. Ben Tillman & the Reconstruction of White Supremacy (2000)
- McMillen, Neil R. Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1989.
- Medley, Keith Weldon. We As Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson. Pelican. March, 2003.
- Murray, Pauli. States' Law on Race and Color. ISBN 978-0-8203-1883-7
- Myrdal, Gunnar. An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. New York: Harper and Row, 1944.
- Newby, I.A. Jim Crow's Defense: Anti-Negro Thought in America, 1900–1930. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1965.
- ISBN 0-684-82298-9.
- Percy, William Alexander. Lanterns on the Levee: Recollections of a Planter's Son. 1941. Reprint, Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1993.
- Pye, David Kenneth. "Complex Relations: An African-American Attorney Navigates Jim Crow Atlanta". Georgia Historical Quarterly, Winter 2007, vol. 91, issue 4, 453–477.
- Rabinowitz, Howard N. Race Relations in the Urban South, 1856–1890 (1978)
- Smith, J. Douglas. Managing: Race, Politics, and Citizenship in Jim Crow Virginia University of North Carolina Press, 2002.
- Smith, J. Douglas. "The Campaign for Racial Purity and the Erosion of Paternalism in Virginia, 1922–1930: "Nominally White, Biologically Mixed, and Legally Negro." Journal of Southern Historyvol. 68 (February 2002), pp. 65–106.
- Smith, J. Douglas. "Patrolling the Boundaries of Race: Motion Picture Censorship and Jim Crow in Virginia, 1922–1932." Historical Journal of Film, Radio, and Television 21 (August 2001): 273–91.
- Sterner, Richard. The Negro's Share (1943) detailed statistics
- Toth, Casey (December 26, 2017). "Churches once abandoned by Jim Crow are being rediscovered". News & Observer.
- Wood, Amy Louise and Natalie J. Ring (eds.), Crime and Punishment in the Jim Crow South. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2019.
- Woodward, C. Vann. The Strange Career of Jim Crow: A Brief Account of Segregation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1955.
- Woodward, C. Vann. The Origins of the New South: 1877–1913. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1951. online
Sports
- Blackman, Dexter Lee (2016). ""The Negro Athlete and Victory": Athletics and Athletes as Advancement Strategies in Black America, 1890s–1930s". Sport History Review. 47 (1). Human Kinetics: 46–68. ISSN 1087-1659.
- Demas, Lane. “Beyond Jackie Robinson: Racial Integration in American College Football and New Directions in Sport History.” History Compass 5.2 (2007): 675–90.
- Essington, Amy. The Integration of the Pacific Coast League: Race and Baseball on the West Coast (U of Nebraska Press, 2018).
- Hawkins, Billy. The new plantation: Black athletes, college sports, and predominantly white NCAA institutions (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).
- Clement, Rufus E. "Racial integration in the field of sports." Journal of Negro Education 23.3 (1954): 222– online
- Fitzpatrick, Frank. And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: The Basketball Game That Changed American Sports (2000)
- Hutchison, Phillip. "The legend of Texas Western: journalism and the epic sports spectacle that wasn’t." Critical Studies in Media Communication 33.2 (2016): 154–67.
- Lopez, Katherine. Cougars of Any Color: The Integration of University of Houston Athletics, 1964–1968 (McFarland, 2008).
- Martin, Charles H. "Jim Crow in the gymnasium: the integration of college basketball in the American South." International Journal of the History of Sport 10.1 (1993): 68–86.
- Miller, Patrick B. "Slouching toward a new expediency: College football and the color line during the depression decade." American Studies 40.3 (1999): 5–30. online[permanent dead link]
- Pennington, Richard. Breaking the Ice: The Racial Integration of Southwest Conference Football (McFarland, 1987).
- Romero, Francine Sanders. "'There are only white champions': The rise and demise of segregated boxing in Texas." Southwestern Historical Quarterly 108.1 (2004): 26–41. online
- Sacks, Marcy S. Joe Louis: Sports and Race in Twentieth-Century America (Routledge, 2018).
- Spivey, Donald. "The black athlete in big-time intercollegiate sports, 1941–1968." Phylon 44.2 (1983): 116–25. online
- White, Derrick E. "From desegregation to integration: Race, football, and 'Dixie' at the University of Florida" Florida Historical Quarterly 88.4 (2010): 469–96.
External links
- The Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia
- Jim Crow and Reconstruction
- The History of Jim Crow, Ronald L. F. Davis – A series of essays on the history of Jim Crow. Archive index at the Wayback Machine
- Creating Jim Crow – Origins of the term and system of laws.
- Racial Etiquette: The Racial Customs and Rules of Racial Behavior in Jim Crow America – The basics of Jim Crow etiquette.
- "You Don't Have to Ride Jim Crow!" PBS documentary on first Freedom Ride, in 1947.
- List of laws enacted in various states
- Ferris University page about Jim Crow
- Voices on Antisemitism Interview with David Pilgrim, founder of Jim Crow Museum Archived May 6, 2009, at the Wayback Machine from the US Holocaust Memorial Museum
- Jim Crow Era, History in the Key of Jazz, Gerald Early, Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri (esp. see section "Jim Crow is Born")
- "Jim Crow Laws". National Park Service. Retrieved November 17, 2010. Examples of Jim Crow laws
- Reports of the Death of Jim Crow Prove Greatly Exaggerated. Bill Morris, The Daily Beast##.
- Jim Crow Signs at A History of Central Florida Podcast
- Black Justice - American Civil Liberties Union, 1931