Modern republicanism
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Modern republicanism is a contemporary
.During the
Liberalism and socialism departed from classical republicanism and fueled the development of the more modern republicanism.
By region and states
Latin America
Republicanism helped inspire movements for independence in former Spanish colonies of Latin America in the early 19th century,[2] and republican ideals and political designs were influential in the new Latin American republics.[3]
Latin American republicans drew inspiration from classic and enlightenment traditions, as well as from developments in France and the United States. The role of republicanism in Spanish-speaking Latin America has attracted renewed interest from scholars. During the middle of the 19th century, many Spanish Americans saw their experiments in republicanism as placing the region on the "vanguard" of political developments, according to historian James Sanders.[4]
Republicanism informed the development of key political institutions in the region, including ideals of citizenship and the creation of civilian militias. Republicanism often enjoyed broad public support.[5] Shared republicanism also shaped the region's diplomatic traditions, especially the focus on regional confederation, international law, sovereign equality, and ideals of an inclusive international society.
Diplomats and international jurists in Latin America, such as Andrés Bello, shaped a tradition of "republican internationalism" that connected domestic republican ideals and practices with the region's emerging place in international society. Until Brazil's transition from monarchy to republic at the end of the 19th century, the question of form of government often produced disputes in regional diplomacy and in calls for international conferences.[6]
Many key political figures in the region identified as republicans, including Simón Bolívar, José María Samper, Francisco Bilbao, and Juan Egaña. Several of these figures produced essays, pamphlets, and collections of speeches that drew upon and adapted the broader tradition of republican political thought.
United Kingdom
Dissatisfaction with British rule led to a longer period of agitation in the early 19th century and failed republican revolutions in
The British Empire and the Commonwealth of Nations
In some countries of the British Empire, later the Commonwealth of Nations, republicanism has taken a variety of forms.
Australia
In Australia, the debate between republicans and monarchists is still active, and republicanism draws support from across the political spectrum. Former Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull was a leading proponent of an Australian republic prior to joining the centre-right Liberal Party, and led the pro-republic campaign during the failed 1999 Australian republic referendum. After becoming Prime Minister in 2015, he confirmed he still supports a republic, but stated that the issue should wait until after the reign of Queen Elizabeth II.[7] The centre-left Labor Party officially supports the abolition of the monarchy and another referendum on the issue.
Barbados
In Barbados, the government gave the promise of a referendum on becoming a republic in August 2008, but it was postponed due to the change of government in the 2008 election. A plan to becoming a republic was still in place in September 2020, according to the current PM, with a target date of late 2021.[8]
On 22 March 2015, Prime Minister Freundel Stuart announced that Barbados will move towards a republican form of government "in the very near future". His government was defeated in the next election.
In September 2020, the government of Prime Minister Mia Mottley announced that Barbados intended to become a republic by 30 November 2021, the 55th anniversary of its independence. The plan would require a two-thirds majority vote in both houses of Parliament.[9]
On 12 October 2021, incumbent Governor-General of Barbados Dame Sandra Mason was jointly nominated by the prime minister and leader of the opposition as candidate for the first president of Barbados,[10] and was subsequently elected on 20 October.[11] Mason took office on 30 November 2021.[12]
Belize
The Belize Progressive Party supports republicanism and in the past the Belizean Nationalist Movement did too in the 1930s–1950s.
Canada
Canadian republicans call for the replacement of the Canadian system of federal constitutional monarchy with a republican form of government. These beliefs are expressed either individually—usually in academic circles—or through the country's one republican lobby group: the Citizens for a Canadian Republic.
Debate between monarchists and republicans in
Gambia
The successful
Grenada
The Grenada United Labour Party advocates Grenada becoming a republic.
Ireland
Irish republicanism is the political movement for the unity and independence of Ireland under a republic. Irish republicans view British rule in any part of Ireland as inherently illegitimate.
Jamaica
Andrew Holness, the current Prime Minister of Jamaica, has announced that his government intends to begin the process of transitioning to a republic.
New Zealand
New Zealand republicanism dates back to the 19th century, although until the late 20th century it was a fringe movement. The current main republican lobby group, New Zealand Republic, was established in 1994. Because New Zealand's constitution is uncodified, a republic could be enacted by statute, as a simple act of parliament.[14] However, it is generally assumed that this would only occur following a nationwide referendum.[15] Several prime ministers and governors-general have identified themselves as republicans, although no government has yet taken any meaningful steps towards enacting a republic. Public opinion polls have generally found that a majority of the population favour retaining the monarchy.
Pakistan
The Pakistani Republican Party supported the Constitution of Pakistan of 1956. Other republican parties in Pakistan are the Balochistan-based Baloch Republican Party and the Jamhoori Wattan Party. Prominent Pakistani republicans include: Akbar Bugti,
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
In the
.South Africa
In South Africa, republicanism in the 1960s was identified with the supporters of apartheid, who resented British interference in their treatment of the country's black population. [citation needed]
Tuvalu
Both the 1986 Tuvaluan constitutional referendum and the 2008 Tuvaluan constitutional referendum had republican options, though both referendums' results came out in favour of keeping the monarchy.
Western Europe
Belgium
Republicanism in
The current main nationwide movement representing republican interests is
.Within the
Within the Walloon Movement, the Rattachist movement is particularly republican, represented by the French National-Collectivist Party, Rassemblement Wallonie France and the regionalist Walloon Rally.
France
The French version of republicanism after 1870 was called "Radicalism"; it became the
Liberalism, was represented in France by the
But the early Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party in France, and Chartism in Britain, were closer to republicanism. Radicalism remained close to republicanism in the 20th century, at least in France, where they governed several times with other parties (participating in both the Cartel des Gauches coalitions as well as the Popular Front).
Discredited after the
Increasingly, after the fall of communism in 1989 and the collapse of the Marxist interpretation of the French Revolution, France increasingly turned to republicanism to define its national identity.[20] Charles de Gaulle, presenting himself as the military savior of France in the 1940s, and the political savior in the 1950s, refashioned the meaning of republicanism. Both left and right enshrined him in the Republican pantheon.[21]
Italy
In the history of Italy there are several so-called "republican" governments that have followed one another over time. Examples are the ancient Roman Republic and the medieval maritime republics. From Cicero to Niccolò Machiavelli, Italian philosophers have imagined the foundations of political science and republicanism.[24] But it was Giuseppe Mazzini who revived the republican idea in Italy in the 19th century.[25]
An
In July 1831, in exile in
The political projects of Mazzini and Cattaneo were thwarted by the action of the Piedmontese Prime Minister Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, and Giuseppe Garibaldi. The latter set aside his republican ideas to favor Italian unity.[29] After having obtained the conquest of the whole of southern Italy during the Expedition of the Thousand, Garibaldi handed over the conquered territories to the king of Sardinia Victor Emmanuel II, which were annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia after a plebiscite. This earned him heavy criticism from numerous republicans who accused him of treason.[30] While a laborious administrative unification began, a first Italian parliament was elected and, on 17 March 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy.[31]
In the political panorama of the time there was a republican political movement which had its martyrs, such as the soldier
The Republicans took part in the elections to the Italian Parliament, and in 1853 they formed the Action Party around Giuseppe Mazzini. Although in exile, Mazzini was elected in 1866, but refused to take his seat in parliament. Carlo Cattaneo was elected deputy in 1860 and 1867, but refused so as not to have to swear loyalty to the House of Savoy. The problem of the oath of loyalty to the monarchy, necessary to be elected, was the subject of controversy within the republican forces. In 1873 Felice Cavallotti, one of the most committed Italian politicians against the monarchy, preceded his oath with a declaration in which he reaffirmed his republican beliefs.[33]
In October 1922, the nomination of Benito Mussolini as Prime Minister by King Victor Emmanuel III, following the march on Rome, paved the way for the establishment of the dictatorship. With the implementation of fascist laws (Royal Decree of 6 November 1926), all political parties operating on Italian territory were dissolved, with the exception of the National Fascist Party. The Kingdom of Italy entered World War II on 10 June 1940. Hostilities ended on 29 April 1945, when the German forces in Italy surrendered.
The aftermath of World War II left Italy also with an anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of the
The
After 1949, the Italian Republican Party was a member of the pro-
Luxembourg
In the 1919 Luxembourg referendum a republic form of statehood was overwhelmingly rejected.
The Netherlands
The Netherlands have known two republican periods: the
Spain
There has existed in Spain a persistent trend of republican thought, especially throughout the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, that has manifested itself in diverse political parties and movements over the entire course of the
There is a renewed interest in republicanism in
Faroe Islands
The Faroese independence movement has a strong republican element, most notably represented by the Republic Party.
Iceland
The overwhelmingly passed 1944 Icelandic constitutional referendum effectively abolished the monarchy in favour of a republic.[55] The 1 December 1918 Danish–Icelandic Act of Union had granted Iceland independence from Denmark, but maintained the two countries in a personal union, with the King of Denmark also being the King of Iceland. In the two-part referendum, voters were asked whether the Union with Denmark should be abolished, and whether to adopt a new republican constitution. Both measures were approved, each with more than 98% in favour. Voter turnout was 98.4% overall,[56] and 100% in two constituencies, Seyðisfirði and Vestur-Skaftafjellssýsla.[57]
Norway
In the period around and after the
Sweden
In Sweden, a major promoter of republicanism is the Swedish Republican Association, which advocates for a democratic ending to the Monarchy of Sweden.[61] A large part of the arguments for proclaiming a Swedish Republic are based on an ideological rejection of the monarchy, not necessarily on rejecting the individuals who actually exercise kingship. The effort towards a republic has been included in the early party platforms of the Social Democratic Party, the Left Party and the Green Party.[62][63][64] The Social Democratic Party had stated its intention to establish a republic in its party platform ever since its foundation in 1889. However, when it came into power in 1920, the desire had worn off. This is attributed to the pragmatism of its then leader Hjalmar Branting. In 1997, the Swedish Republican Association was founded. In 2010, the umbrella Alliance of European Republican Movements (AERM) was founded in Stockholm, in which Swedish republicans cooperate with other European republican groups.
Japan
In 1908, a letter allegedly written by Japanese revolutionaries denied the Emperor's divinity, and threatened his life.[66] In 1910, Kōtoku Shūsui and 10 others plotted to assassinate the Emperor.[67] In 1923, 1925 and 1932 Emperor Hirohito survived assassination attempts.[68]
After World War II, the communists were antagonistic to the Emperor. The Japanese Communist Party demanded the abolition of the emperor system.[69] They boycotted the formal opening of the National Diet in 1949 because of Emperor Shōwa's presence.[70] The Japanese Communist Party continued to be antagonistic after Emperor Shōwa's death in 1989.[71]
During the Imperial visits to
In 1951, three thousand students in Kyoto University protested against Emperor Shōwa's continued reign.[74]
Turkey
In 1923 after the
Many of the root ideas of Kemalism began during the late Ottoman Empire under various reforms to avoid the imminent collapse of the Empire, beginning chiefly in the early 19th-century Tanzimat reforms.[76] The mid-century Young Ottomans attempted to create the ideology of Ottoman nationalism, or Ottomanism, to quell the rising ethnic nationalism in the Empire and introduce limited democracy for the first time while maintaining Islamist influences. In the early 20th century, the Young Turks abandoned Ottoman nationalism in favor of early Turkish nationalism, while adopting a secular political outlook. After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, Atatürk, influenced by both the Young Ottomans and the Young Turks,[77] as well as by their successes and failures, led the declaration of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, borrowing from the earlier movements' ideas of secularism and Turkish nationalism, while implementing free education[78] and other reforms that have been enshrined by later leaders into guidelines for governing Turkey.
United States
The values and ideals of republicanism are foundational in
Republicanism became the dominant political value of Americans during and after the American Revolution. The Founding Fathers were strong advocates of republican values, especially Thomas Jefferson, Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, Thomas Paine, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton.[86] However, in 1854, social movements started to harness values of abolitionism and free labour.[87] These burgeoning radical traditions in America became epitomized in the early formation of the Republican Party, known as "red republicanism."[88] The efforts were primarily led by political leaders such as Alvan E. Bovay, Thaddeus Stevens, and Abraham Lincoln.[89]
See also
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Sources
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External links
- Republicanism on In Our Time at the BBC