Dutch Republic
Republic of the Seven United Netherlands Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden (Dutch) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1579–1795 | |||||||||
Motto: William III, Prince of Orange (from 1688, was also King William III of England) | |||||||||
• 1747–1751 | William IV, Prince of Orange | ||||||||
• 1751–1795 | William V, Prince of Orange | ||||||||
Grand Pensionary | |||||||||
• 1581–1585 | Paulus Buys | ||||||||
• 1586–1619 | Johan van Oldenbarnevelt | ||||||||
• 1621–1629 | Anthonie Duyck | ||||||||
• 1631–1636 | Adriaan Pauw | ||||||||
• 1636–1651 | Jacob Cats | ||||||||
• 1651–1653 | Adriaan Pauw | ||||||||
• 1653–1672 | Johan de Witt | ||||||||
• 1672–1689 | Gaspar Fagel | ||||||||
• 1689–1720 | Anthonie Heinsius | ||||||||
• 1720–1727 | Isaac van Hoornbeek | ||||||||
• 1727–1736 | Simon van Slingelandt | ||||||||
• 1736–1746 | Anthonie van der Heim | ||||||||
• 1746–1749 | Jacob Gilles | ||||||||
• 1749–1772 | Pieter Steyn | ||||||||
• 1772–1787 | Pieter van Bleiswijk | ||||||||
Legislature | States General | ||||||||
• State Council | Council of State | ||||||||
Historical era | Early modern period | ||||||||
23 January 1579 | |||||||||
26 July 1581 | |||||||||
12 April 1588 | |||||||||
30 January 1648 | |||||||||
• Rampjaar | 1672 | ||||||||
11 April 1713 | |||||||||
19 January 1795 | |||||||||
Population | |||||||||
• 1795 | 1,880,500[2] | ||||||||
Currency | Guilder, rijksdaalder | ||||||||
| |||||||||
Today part of | Netherlands Belgium |
The United Provinces of the Netherlands, officially the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (
.Although the state was small and had only around 1.5 million inhabitants, it controlled a worldwide network of seafaring
The republic was more tolerant of different religions and ideas than contemporary states, allowing freedom of thought to its residents. Artists flourished under this regime, including painters such as Rembrandt, Johannes Vermeer and many others. So did scientists, such as Hugo Grotius, Christiaan Huygens and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. Dutch trade, science, armed forces, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world during much of the 17th century, a period which became known as the Dutch Golden Age.
The republic was a
Economic decline led to a period of political instability known as the Patriottentijd (1780–1787).[3] This unrest was temporarily suppressed by a Prussian invasion in support of the stadtholder. The French Revolution and subsequent War of the First Coalition reignited these tensions. Following military defeat by France, the stadtholder was expelled in the Batavian Revolution of 1795, ending the Dutch Republic, which was succeeded by the Batavian Republic.
History
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Until the 16th century, the Low Countries—corresponding roughly to the present-day Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg—consisted of a number of duchies, counties, and prince-bishoprics, almost all of which were under the supremacy of the Holy Roman Empire, with the exception of the County of Flanders, most of which was under the Kingdom of France.
Most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the
In 1579, a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the
Religious toleration and refugees
An important factor in the growth of the Netherlands as an economic power was the influx of groups seeking
Economic growth
The era of explosive economic growth is roughly coterminous with the period of social and cultural bloom that has been called the Dutch Golden Age, and that actually formed the material basis for that cultural era. Amsterdam became the hub of world trade, the center into which staples and luxuries flowed for sorting, processing, and distribution, and then reexported around Europe and the world.[6]
During 1585 through 1622 there was the rapid accumulation of trade capital, often brought in by refugee merchants from Antwerp and other ports. The money was typically invested in high-risk ventures like pioneering expeditions to the East Indies to engage in the spice trade. These ventures were soon consolidated in the Dutch East India Company (VOC). There were similar ventures in different fields however, like the trade on Russia and the Levant. The profits of these ventures were ploughed back in the financing of new trade, which led to its exponential growth.[7]
Rapid industrialization led to the rapid growth of the nonagricultural labor force and the increase in real wages during the same time. In the half-century between 1570 and 1620 this labor supply increased 3 percent per annum, a truly phenomenal growth. Despite this, nominal wages were repeatedly increased, outstripping price increases. In consequence, real wages for unskilled laborers were 62 percent higher in 1615–1619 than in 1575–1579.[8]
Amsterdam
By the mid-1660s Amsterdam had reached the optimum population (about 200,000) for the level of trade, commerce and agriculture then available to support it. The city contributed the largest quota in taxes to the States of Holland which in turn contributed over half the quota to the States General. Amsterdam was also one of the most reliable in settling tax demands and therefore was able to use the threat to withhold such payments to good effect.[9][10]
Amsterdam was governed by a body of regents, a large, but closed, oligarchy with control over all aspects of the city's life, and a dominant voice in the foreign affairs of Holland. Only men with sufficient wealth and a long enough residence within the city could join the ruling class. The first step for an ambitious and wealthy merchant family was to arrange a marriage with a long-established regent family. In the 1670s one such union, that of the Trip family (the Amsterdam branch of the Swedish arms makers) with the son of Burgomaster Valckenier, extended the influence and patronage available to the latter and strengthened his dominance of the council. The oligarchy in Amsterdam thus gained strength from its breadth and openness. In the smaller towns family interest could unite members on policy decisions but contraction through intermarriage could lead to the degeneration of the quality of the members.
In Amsterdam the network was so large that members of the same family could be related to opposing factions and pursue widely separated interests. The young men who had risen to positions of authority in the 1670s and 1680s consolidated their hold on office well into the 1690s and even the new century.[11]
Amsterdam's regents provided good services to residents. They spent heavily on the water-ways and other essential infrastructure, as well as municipal almshouses for the elderly, hospitals and churches.[12]
Amsterdam's wealth was generated by its commerce, which was in turn sustained by the judicious encouragement of entrepreneurs whatever their origin. This open door policy has been interpreted as proof of a tolerant ruling class. But toleration was practiced for the convenience of the city. Therefore, the wealthy Sephardic Jews from Portugal were welcomed and accorded all privileges except those of citizenship, but the poor Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe were far more carefully vetted and those who became dependent on the city were encouraged to move on.[13] Similarly, provision for the housing of Huguenot immigrants was made in 1681 when Louis XIV's religious policy was beginning to drive these Protestants out of France; no encouragement was given to the dispossessed Dutch from the countryside or other towns of Holland. The regents encouraged immigrants to build churches and provided sites or buildings for churches and temples for all except the most radical sects and the Catholics by the 1670s[14] (although even the Catholics could practice quietly in a chapel within the Beguinhof).[15]
First Stadtholderless Period (1650–1675)
During the wars a tension had arisen between the Orange-Nassau leaders and the patrician merchants. The former—the Orangists—were soldiers and centralizers who seldom spoke of compromise with the enemy and looked for military solutions. They included many rural gentry as well as ordinary folk attached to the banner of the
First and Second Anglo-Dutch wars
The Republic and England were major rivals in world trade and naval power. Halfway through the 17th century the Republic's
In 1651, England imposed its first
After the
Franco-Dutch War and Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1702)
The year 1672 is known in the Netherlands as the "Disaster Year" (Rampjaar). England declared war on the Republic, (the Third Anglo-Dutch War), followed by France, Münster and Cologne, which had all signed alliances against the Republic. France, Cologne and Münster invaded the Republic. Johan de Witt and his brother Cornelis, who had accomplished a diplomatic balancing act for a long time, were now the obvious scapegoats. They were lynched, and a new stadtholder, William III, was appointed.[20]
An Anglo-French attempt to land on the Dutch shore was barely repelled in three desperate naval battles under command of
In 1688, at the start of the
Second Stadtholderless Period (1702–1747)
The Second Stadtholderless Period (Dutch: Tweede Stadhouderloze Tijdperk) is the designation in Dutch historiography of the period between the death of stadtholder William III on 19 March[21] 1702 and the appointment of William IV, Prince of Orange as stadtholder and captain general in all provinces of the Dutch Republic on 2 May 1747. During this period the office of stadtholder was left vacant in the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht, though in other provinces that office was filled by members of the House of Nassau-Dietz (later called Orange-Nassau) during various periods.
During the period, the Republic lost its Great-Power status and its primacy in world trade, processes that went hand-in-hand, the latter causing the former. Though the economy declined considerably, causing deindustralization and deurbanization in the maritime provinces, a rentier-class kept accumulating a large capital fund that formed the basis for the leading position the Republic achieved in the international capital market. A military crisis at the end of the period caused the Orangist revolution and the restoration of the Stadtholderate in all provinces.
Economic decline after 1730
The slow economic decline after 1730 was relative: other countries grew faster, eroding the Dutch lead and surpassing it. Wilson identifies three causes. Holland lost its world dominance in trade as competitors emerged and copied its practices, built their own ships and ports, and traded on their own account directly without going through Dutch intermediaries. Second, there was no growth in manufacturing, due perhaps to a weaker sense of industrial entrepreneurship and to the high wage scale. Third the wealthy turned their investments to foreign loans. This helped jump-start other nations and provided the Dutch with a steady income from collecting interest, but leaving them with few domestic sectors with a potential for rapid growth.[22][23]
After the Dutch fleet declined, merchant interests became dependent on the goodwill of Britain. The main focus of Dutch leaders was reducing the country's considerable budget deficits. Dutch trade and shipping remained at a fairly steady level through the 18th century, but no longer had a near monopoly and also could not match growing English and French competition. The Netherlands lost its position as the trading centre of Northern Europe to London.
Although the Netherlands remained wealthy, investments for the nation's money became more difficult to find. Some investment went into purchases of land for estates, but most went to foreign bonds and Amsterdam remained one of Europe's banking capitals.
Culture and society
Dutch culture also declined both in the arts and sciences. Literature for example largely imitated English and French styles with little in the way of innovation or originality. The most influential intellectual was
Religious life became more relaxed as well. Catholics grew from 18% to 23% of the population during the 18th century and enjoyed greater tolerance, even as they continued to be outside the political system. They became divided by the feud between moralistic Jansenists (who denied free will) and orthodox believers. One group of Jansenists formed a splinter sect, the Old Catholic Church in 1723. The upper classes willingly embraced the ideas of the Enlightenment, tempered by the tolerance that meant less hostility to organized religion compared to France.[25]
Dutch universities declined in importance, no longer attracting large numbers of foreign students. The Netherlands remained an important hub of intellectual exchange, creating reviews of foreign publications that made scholars aware of new works in French, German, and English. Dutch painting declined, no longer being innovative, with painters pursuing the styles of the old masters.
Life for the average Dutchman became slower and more relaxed in the 18th century. The upper and middle classes continued to enjoy prosperity and high living standards. The drive to succeed seemed less urgent. Unskilled laborers remained locked in poverty and hardship. The large underclass of unemployed required government and private charity to survive.
The Orangist revolution (1747–1751)
During
Regency and indolent rule (1752–1779)
His son, William V, was 3 years old when his father died, and a long regency characterised by corruption and misrule began. His mother delegated most of the powers of the regency to Bentinck and her favorite, Duke Louis Ernest of Brunswick-Lüneburg. All power was concentrated in the hands of an unaccountable few, including the Frisian nobleman Douwe Sirtema van Grovestins.[26] Still a teenager, William V assumed the position of stadtholder in 1766, the last to hold that office. In 1767, he married Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia, the daughter of Augustus William of Prussia, niece of Frederick the Great.
The position of the Dutch during the
An English historian summed him up uncharitably as "a Prince of the profoundest lethargy and most abysmal stupidity."[27] And yet he would guide his family through the difficult French-Batavian period and his son would be crowned king.
Fourth Anglo-Dutch War (1780–1784)
The
Although the Dutch Republic did not enter into a formal alliance with the United States and their allies, U.S. ambassador (and future President) John Adams managed to establish diplomatic relations with the Dutch Republic, making it the second European country to diplomatically recognize the Continental Congress in April 1782. In October 1782, a treaty of amity and commerce was concluded as well.
Most of the war consisted of a series of largely successful British operations against Dutch colonial economic interests, although British and Dutch naval forces also
Patriot rebellion and its suppression (1785–1795)
After the war with Great Britain ended disastrously in 1784, there was growing unrest and a rebellion by the anti-Orangist
Support for the Patriots came mostly from the middle class. They formed militias called exercitiegenootschappen. In 1785, there was an open Patriot rebellion, which took the form of an armed insurrection by local militias in certain Dutch towns, Freedom being the rallying cry. Herman Willem Daendels attempted to organise an overthrow of various municipal governments (vroedschap). The goal was to oust government officials and force new elections. "Seen as a whole this revolution was a string of violent and confused events, accidents, speeches, rumours, bitter enmities and armed confrontations", wrote French historian Fernand Braudel, who saw it as a forerunner of the French Revolution.[citation needed] The Patriot movement focused more on local political power, where they had no say in their towns' governance. Although they were able to curtail the power of the stadholder, and hold democratic elections in select towns, they were divided in their political vision, which was more local than national. Supporters were drawn from religious dissenters and Catholics in particular places, while pro-stadholder Orangists had more widespread geographical support of sections of the lower classes, the Dutch Reformed clergy, and the Jewish community.[31]
In 1785
This severe military response overwhelmed the Patriots and put the stadholder firmly back in control. A small unpaid Prussian army was billeted in the Netherlands and supported themselves by looting and extortion. The exercitiegenootschappen continued urging citizens to resist the government. They distributed pamphlets, formed "Patriot Clubs" and held public
The French Revolution was popular, and numerous underground clubs were promoting it when in January 1795 the French army invaded. The underground rose up, overthrew the municipal and provincial governments, and proclaimed the Batavian Republic in Amsterdam. Stadtholder William V fled to England and the States General dissolved itself.[34]
Economy
During the
The free trade spirit of the time was augmented by the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries.[40] The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands. The Dutch East-India Company exchange went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a single city, so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles. While the banking system evolved in the Low Countries, it was quickly incorporated by the well-connected English, stimulating English economic output.[41][42][43][44]
The Dutch Republic was a master of banking, often compared to 14th century Florence.
Politics
The republic was a confederation of seven provinces, which had their own governments and were very independent, and a number of so-called Generality Lands. The latter were governed directly by the States General, the federal government. The States General were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives of each of the seven provinces. The provinces of the republic were, in official feudal order:
- Duchy of Guelders
- County of Holland
- County of Zeeland
- Lordship of Utrecht
- Lordship of Overijssel
- Lordship of Frisia
- Lordship of Groningen
There was an eighth province, the County of Drenthe, but this area was so poor that it was exempt from paying federal taxes, and as a consequence, it was denied representation in the States General.
Each province was governed by the Provincial States, their main executive official (though not the official head of state) being a
Zeeland and usually Utrecht had the same stadtholder as Holland. There was a constant power struggle between the Orangists, who supported the stadtholders and specifically the princes of Orange, and the Republicans, who supported the States General and hoped to replace the semi-hereditary nature of the stadtholdership with a true republican structure.
After the
The framers of the United States Constitution were influenced by the Constitution of the Republic of the United Provinces, as Federalist No. 20, by James Madison, shows.[45] The United States did not intend to emulate the United Provinces; Madison describes the Dutch confederacy as exhibiting "Imbecility in the government; discord among the provinces; foreign influence and indignities; a precarious existence in peace, and peculiar calamities from war." However, the 1776 American Declaration of Independence is similar to the 1581 Act of Abjuration, essentially the declaration of independence of the United Provinces,[46] although there is no evidence of direct influence.
-
Map of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands with colonies, c1707-1729
-
The united provinces, with Drenthe and the Generality Lands
Religion
In the
During the republic, any person who wished to hold public office had to conform to the Reformed Church and take an oath to this effect. The extent to which different religions or denominations were persecuted depended much on the time period and regional or city leaders. In the beginning, this was especially focused on Roman Catholics, being the religion of the enemy. In 17th-century
In the first years of the republic, controversy arose within the Reformed Church, mainly around the subject of
Beginning in the 18th century, the situation changed from more or less active persecution of religious services to a state of restricted toleration of other religions, as long as their services took place secretly in private churches.
Decline
Long-term rivalry between the two main factions in Dutch society, the Staatsgezinden (Republicans,
united against this country.Wars to contain the expansionist policies of France in various coalitions after the Glorious Revolution, mostly including England and Scotland—after 1707, Great Britain—burdened the republic with huge debts, although little of the fighting after 1673 took place on its own territory. The necessity to maintain a vast army against France meant that less money could be spent on the navy, weakening the republic's economy. After William III's death in 1702 the Second Stadtholderless Period was inaugurated. Despite having contributed much in the War of the Spanish Succession, the Dutch Republic gained little from the peace talks in Utrecht (1713). However, the Dutch had over a period of forty years successfully defended their positions in the Southern Netherlands and their troops were central in the alliances which had halted French territorial expansion in Europe until 1792.[50] The end of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1748, and Austria becoming allies with France against Prussia, marked the end of the republic as a major military power.[51]
Fierce competition for trade and colonies, especially from France and England, furthered the economic downturn of the country. The three Anglo-Dutch Wars and the rise of mercantilism had a negative effect on Dutch shipping and commerce.[citation needed]
See also
- List of countries that have gained independence from Spain
- Dutch colonial empire
- Dutch East India Company
- Dutch West India Company
References
Footnotes
- ISBN 978-1139450942.
... European Christendom remained divided, and second, because the Spanish monarchy explicitly recognized the sovereignty of the Dutch Republic, despite the fact that the Reformed Church was the official state religion of that polity.
- ^ Demographics of the Netherlands Archived 26 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Jan Lahmeyer. Retrieved on 10 February 2014.
- from the original on 26 November 2023. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
- ^ Pieter Geyl, History of the Dutch-Speaking Peoples, 1555–1648. Phoenix Press, 2001, p. 55.
- ^ Bodian, Miriam, Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation: Conversos and Community in Early Modern Amsterdam. Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1997.
- ISBN 9789057420016.
- ^ Charles R. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire 1600–1800 (1965)
- ^ Jan de Vries and A. van der Woude, The First Modern Economy. Success, Failure, and Perseverance of the Dutch Economy, 1500–1815 (1997) pp. 668–672
- ^ Marjolein 't Hart Zanden, et al., A financial history of the Netherlands (Cambridge University Press, 1997). pp 29–36.
- ^ Deric Regin, Traders, Artists, Burghers: A Cultural History of Amsterdam in the 17th century (Van Gorcum, 1976).
- ^ Edwards, Elizabeth, "Amsterdam and William III", History Today, (Dec 1993), Vol. 43, Issue 12 pp. 25–31
- ISBN 9789052603506.
- ISBN 9781571814302.
- ISBN 9780521544061.
- ISBN 9781858288987.
- ^ Eugen Weber, A Modern History of Europe (1971) p. 290
- ISBN 9780198605270.
- ^ Gijs Rommelse, "Prizes and Profits: Dutch Maritime Trade during the Second Anglo-Dutch War", International Journal of Maritime History (2007) 19#2 pp. 139–159.
- ^ D. R. Hainsworth, et al. The Anglo-Dutch Naval Wars 1652–1674 (1998)
- ^ "Johan De Witt". Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 September 2018. Retrieved 20 October 2018.
- ^ This is the date from the Gregorian calendar that was followed at the time in the Dutch Republic; according to the Julian calendar, still used in England at the time, the date of death was 8 March.
- ^ C. H. Wilson, "The Economic Decline of the Netherlands", Economic History Review (1939) 9#2 pp. 111–127, esp. p. 113 in JSTOR
- ^ Israel (1995), pp. 999–1018.
- ^ Thomas M. Lennon and Michael Hickson, "Pierre Bayle", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2012) online
- ^ Israel (1995), pp. 1033–1036.
- ^ a b c d Israel (1995), pp. 996–997, 1069–1087.
- ^ Fulford, Roger Royal Dukes William Collins and Son London 1933
- ^ Edler, Friedrich, The Dutch Republic and The American Revolution (1911, reprinted 2001) Honolulu, Hawaii: University Press of the Pacific, p. 88
- ^ Braudel, Fernand, The Perspective of the World vol. III of Civilization and Capitalism 1984. p. 273.
- ^ Kennedy, James C. A Concise History of The Netherlands, p. 258
- ^ Kennedy, A Concise History of the Netherlands, pp. 258-59
- ^ Kennedy, A Concise History of the Netherlands, p. 260
- ^ Kennedy, A Concise History of the Netherlands, p. 261
- ^ C. Cook & J. Stevenson, The routledge companion to European history since 1763 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2005), p. 66; J. Dunn, Democracy: A history (NY: Atlantic Books, 2005), p. 86.
- ^ Littell, McDougal. "21". World History Pattern of Interaction. pp. 594b.
- ^ Cook, Chris; Broadhead, Philip (2006). "Population, Urbanisation and Health". The Routledge Companion to Early Modern Europe, 1453–1763. Abingdon and New York. p. 186.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ISBN 1-85984-015-9.
- .
- ISBN 1-85984-015-9.
- ISBN 1-85984-015-9.
- ISBN 978-1-317-13522-7.
- ISBN 978-0-19-516520-3. Archivedfrom the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
- ISBN 978-81-8069-149-2.
Bengal ... was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.
- ^ Om Prakash, "Empire, Mughal Archived 18 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine", History of World Trade Since 1450, edited by John J. McCusker, vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2006, pp. 237–240, World History in Context. Retrieved 3 August 2017
- ^ James Madison (11 December 1787). Fœderalist No. 20. Morrisiana, NY. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 9 August 2013.
- ^ Barbara Wolff (29 June 1998). "Was Declaration of Independence inspired by Dutch?". University of Wisconsin–Madison. Archived from the original on 13 December 2007. Retrieved 14 December 2007.
- ^ "Unie van Utrecht – Wikisource". nl.wikisource.org. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
- ^ a b Israel (1995).
- ISBN 90-806754-2-3.
- ^ Van Nimwegen (2020), p. 354.
- ^ O. van Nimwegen, De Republiek der Verenigde Nederlanden als grote mogendheid. Buitenlandse politiek en oorlogvoering in de eerste helft van de achttiende eeuw en in het bijzonder tijdens de Oostenrijkse Successieoorlog (1740–1748) (in Dutch)
Bibliography
- Adams, J. (2005). The Familial State: Ruling Families and Merchant Capitalism in Early Modern Europe. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3308-8.
- Boxe, C. R. (1990). The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600–1800. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-013618-5.
- Ertl, A. W. (2008). Toward an Understanding of Europe: A Political Economic Précis of Continental Integration. Universal Publishers. ISBN 978-1599429830.
- Hoftijzer, Paul G., The Dutch Republic, Centre of the European Book Trade in the 17th Century Archived 12 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine, EGO – European History Online Archived 8 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Mainz: Institute of European History Archived 19 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine, 2015, retrieved: 8 March 2020 (pdf Archived 27 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine).
- Israel, J. I. (1995). The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-873072-1.
- Kuznicki, J. T. (2008). "Dutch Republic". The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks: Sage. pp. 130–131. ISBN 978-1412965804.
- Reynolds, C. G. (1998). Navies in History. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press.
- ISBN 978-0394510750.
- Van der Burg, M. (2010). "Transforming the Dutch Republic into the Kingdom of Holland". European Review of History. 17 (2): 151–170. S2CID 217530502.
- Van Nimwegen, Olaf (2020). De Veertigjarige Oorlog 1672–1712: de strijd van de Nederlanders tegen de Zonnekoning [The 40 Years' War 1672–1712: the Dutch struggle against the Sun King] (in Dutch). Prometheus. ISBN 978-90-446-3871-4.
External links
- Media related to Republic of the Seven United Netherlands at Wikimedia Commons