Early modern period

Main articles: Timeline of 16th-century Muslim history, Timeline of 17th-century Muslim history, and Timeline of 18th-century Muslim history

Main articles:

Main articles:

Further information:

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The Songhai Empire took control of the trans-Saharan trade at the beginning of the modern era. It seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Jenne in 1473, building the regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. The empire eventually made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought Muslim scholars to Gao.^[58]

Around the beginning of the modern era, the

.

In the

ended in the contraction of both Adal and Abyssinia, changing regional dynamics for centuries to come.

The

in the early 20th century, following the military Campaign of the Sultanates.

Europe

Main article:

Early Modern Europe

European events and dates The beginning of the early modern period is not clear-cut, but is generally accepted as in the late 15th century or early 16th century. Significant dates in this transitional phase from medieval to early modern Europe can be noted: 1415 – Conquest of Ceuta by the Portuguese 1444 – Johannes Gutenberg's Movable type 1453 – Conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans 1485 – England's last Plantagenet king, Richard III dies 1486 – Giovanni Pico della Mirandola publishes his "900 Theses" 1492 – Christopher Columbus leads a Spanish fleet to America. 1494 – French king Charles VIII invaded Italy 1498 – A Portuguese fleet, led by Vasco da Gama, arrives in India 1517 – Reformation begins with Martin Luther 1519 – First circumnavigation of the globe, by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan 1532 – Machiavelli's The Prince 1543 – Nicolaus Copernicus's De revolutionibus 1545 – Council of Trent is convened 1648 – Thirty Years War .

Many major events caused

in the 17th and 18th centuries, until the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century.

The early modern period is taken to end with the

Qing China

, all entered a period of stagnation or decline.

Renaissance vs. early modern period

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The expression "early modern" is at times used as a substitute for the term

.

Gunpowder and firearms

When gunpowder was introduced to Europe, it was immediately used almost exclusively in weapons and explosives for warfare. Though it was invented in China, gunpowder arrived in Europe already formulated for military use and European countries took advantage of it and were the first to create the classic firearms.^[20] The advances made in gunpowder and firearms was directly tied to the decline in the use of plate armor because of the inability of the armor to protect one from bullets. The musket was able to penetrate all forms of armor available at the time, making armor obsolete, and as a consequence the heavy musket as well. Although there is relatively little to no difference in design between arquebus and musket except in size and strength, it was the term musket which remained in use up into the 1800s.^[61]

European kingdoms and movements

In the early modern period, the

. Despite its name, for much of its history the Empire did not include Rome within its borders.

The Renaissance was a cultural movement that began in the 14th century,^[62] beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the term. As a cultural movement, it encompassed a rebellion of learning based on classical sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform.

Notable individuals

Among the notable royalty of the time was

In Central Europe, King Matthias Corvinus (1443–1490), a notable nation builder, conqueror (Hungary in his time was the most powerful in Central Europe^[80]) and patron, was the first who introduced the Renaissance outside of Italy.^[81][82] In military area, he introduced the Black Army, one of the first standing armies in Europe and a remarkably modern force.^[83][84]

Some noblemen from the generation that lived during this period have been attributed the moniker "the last knight", with the most notable being the above-mentioned Maximilian I (1459–1519),^[85] Chevalier de Bayard (1476–1524),^[86] Franz von Sickingen (1481–1523)^[87] and Götz von Berlichingen (1480–1562).^[88] Maximilian (although Claude Michaud opines that he could claim "last knight" status by virtue of being the last medieval epic poet^[89]) was actually a chief modernizing force of the time (whose reform initiatives led to Europe-wide revolutions in the areas of warfare^[90][91][92] and communications,^[93] among others), who broke the back of the knight class (causing many to become robber barons)^[91] and had personal conflicts with the three other men on the matter of the knight's status.^[94][95][91]

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Early Renaissance

, and the Early modern period

.

The

.

In England,

.

Christians and Christendom

Christianity was challenged at the beginning of the modern period with the

.

End of the Crusades and unity

The

warriors were basically infantry, and their many defeats of larger armies with heavily armored knights helped effect the infantry revolution. In totality, the Hussite Crusades were inconclusive.

The last crusade, the Crusade of 1456, was organized to counter the expanding Ottoman Empire and lift the

to this day.

Nearly a hundred years later, the

was born. The Corpus Christianum has since existed with the modern idea of a tolerant and diverse society consisting of many different communities.

Inquisitions and Reformations

The modern

went through secular courts).

The

in 1502. Luther became professor of philosophy there in 1508 and a preacher at the castle church of Wittenberg.

On 31 October 1517, Luther posted his Ninety-five Theses on the door of the

trace their roots back to the initial reforming movements.

The Diet of Worms in 1521, presided by Emperor Charles V, declared Luther a heretic and outlaw (though Charles was more preoccupied with maintaining his vast empire than arresting Luther). As a result of Charles V's distractions in East Europe and Spain, he agreed through the Diet of Speyer in 1526 to allow German princes to effectively decide themselves whether to enforce the Edict of Worms or not, for the time being. After returning to the empire, Charles V attended the Diet of Augsburg in 1530 to order all Protestants in the empire to revert to Catholicism. In response, the Protestant territories in and around Germany formed the Schmalkaldic League to fight against the Catholic Holy Roman Empire. Charles V left again to handle the advance of the Ottoman Turks. He returned in 1547 to launch a military campaign against the Schmalkaldic League and issue an imperial law requiring all Protestants to return to Catholic practices (with superficial concessions to Protestant practices). War ended when Charles V relented in the Peace of Passau (1552) and Peace of Augsburg (1555), which formalized the law that the rulers of a land decide its religion.

Of the late Inquisitions in the modern era, there were two different manifestations:^[97]

1. the Portuguese Inquisition (1536–1821)
2. the Roman Inquisition (1542–c.1860)

The Portuguese inquisition was a local analogue of the more famous Spanish Inquisition. The Roman Inquisition covered most of the

.

The

on Earth. The effort sought to prevent further damage to the Church and her faithful at the hands of the newly formed Protestant denominations.

Tsardom of Russia

In development of the

.

Russia experienced territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of

and stretching from the middle Volga to Ryazan and Tula, then breaking abruptly to the south and extending to the Dnieper via Pereyaslavl. This area was settled by a population of free people practicing various trades and crafts.

In 1648, the peasants of

]

Discovery and trade

The

]

The search for new routes was based on the fact that the

]

Mercantile capitalism

Mercantilism was the dominant school of economic thought throughout the early modern period (from the 16th to the 18th century). This led to some of the first instances of significant government intervention and control over the economy, and it was during this period that much of the modern capitalist system was established. Internationally, mercantilism encouraged the many European wars of the period and fueled European imperialism. Belief in mercantilism began to fade in the late 18th century, as the arguments of Adam Smith and the other classical economists won out.^{[citation needed]}

The

]

Trade and the new economy

In the Old World, the most desired trading goods were gold, silver, and spices. Western Europeans used the compass, new sailing ship technologies, new maps, and advances in astronomy to seek a viable trade route to Asia for valuable spices that Mediterranean powers could not contest.

Desired trading goods
Gold fueled European exploration of the Americas. Explorers reported Native Americans in Central America, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia were to have had large amounts. Silver, valued as a currency coins . Spices were among the most luxurious products, the most common being cassia), cumin, nutmeg, ginger and cloves .

In terms of shipping advances, the most important developments were the creation of the

]

Piracy's Golden Age

The Golden Age of Piracy is a designation given to one or more outbursts of piracy in the early modern period, spanning from the mid-17th century to the mid-18th century. The buccaneering period covers approximately the late 17th century. The period is characterized by Anglo-French seamen based on Jamaica and Tortuga attacking Spanish colonies and shipping in the Caribbean and eastern Pacific. A sailing route known as the Pirate Round was followed by certain Anglo-American pirates at the turn of the 18th century, associated with long-distance voyages from Bermuda and the Americas to rob Muslim and East India Company targets in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea. The post-Spanish Succession period extending into the early 18th century, when Anglo-American sailors and privateers left unemployed by the end of the War of the Spanish Succession turned en masse to piracy in the Caribbean, the American eastern seaboard, the West African coast, and the Indian Ocean.^{[citation needed]}

European states and politics

The 15th to 18th century period is marked by the first European colonies, the rise of strong centralized governments, and the beginnings of recognizable European nation states that are the direct antecedents of today's states. Although the Renaissance included revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for European artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance man".^[102][103]

During the

]

The Peace of Westphalia resulted from the first modern diplomatic congress. Until 1806, the regulations became part of the constitutional laws of the Holy Roman Empire. The Treaty of the Pyrenees, signed in 1659, ended the war between France and Spain and is often considered part of the overall accord.

Absolutism

The

]

French power

For much of the reign of

]

Men who featured prominently in the political and military life of France during this period include

.

Early English revolutions

Before the Age of Revolution, the

parliamentary democracy

in England.

International balance of power

The

]

The

naval supremacy.

Americas

The term colonialism is normally used with reference to discontiguous overseas empires rather than contiguous land-based empires, European or otherwise. European colonisation during the 15th to 19th centuries resulted in the spread of Christianity to Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, Australia and the Philippines.

Exploration and conquest of the Americas

Christopher Columbus came to the Americas in 1492. Subsequently, the major sea powers in Europe sent expeditions to the New World to build trade networks and colonies and to convert the native peoples to Christianity. Pope Alexander VI divided newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal along a north–south meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands (off the west coast of Africa). The division was never accepted by the rulers of England or France.^{[citation needed]}

Colonial Latin America

What is now called

]

Initially, Portuguese settlements (Brazil) in the coastal northeast were of lesser importance in the larger Portuguese overseas empire, where lucrative commerce and small settlements devoted to trade were established in coastal Africa, India and China. With sparse indigenous populations that could not be coerced to work and no known deposits of precious metals, Portugal sought a high-value, low-bulk export product and found it in sugarcane. Black African slave labour from Portugal's West African possessions was imported to do the grueling agricultural work. As the wealth of the Ibero-America increased, some Western European powers (Dutch, French, British, Danish) sought to duplicate the model in areas that the Iberians had not settled in numbers. They seized some Caribbean islands from the Spanish and transferred the model of sugar production on plantations with slave labour and settled in northern areas of North America in what are now the Eastern Seaboard of the United States and Canada.^[106]

Colonial North America

Declaration of Independence, showing the Committee of Five in charge of drafting the Declaration in 1776 as it presents its work to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia

North America outside the zone of Spanish settlement was a contested area in the 17th century. Spain had founded small settlements in Florida and Georgia, but nowhere near the size of those in

to Great Britain.

The Thirteen Colonies, in lower British North America, rebelled against British rule through 1765-1783, due to various factors such as belief in natural rights, the enforcement of new taxes levied by a Parliament which they could not vote for representatives in, and opposition to monarchy. The British colonies in Canada remained loyal to the crown, and a provisional government formed by the Thirteen Colonies proclaimed their independence on July 4, 1776, and subsequently became the original 13 United States of America. With the 1783 Treaty of Paris ending the American Revolutionary War, Britain recognised the former Thirteen Colonies' independence.^[107]

Atlantic World

A recent development in early modern history is the creation of Atlantic World as a category. The term generally encompasses Western Europe, West Africa, and the Americas. It seeks to show both local and regional development and the connections between the various geographical regions.^{[citation needed]}

Religion, science, philosophy, and education

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Eastern philosophies

Concerning the development of Eastern philosophies, much of Eastern philosophy had been in an advanced state of development from study in the previous centuries. The various philosophies include Indian philosophy, Chinese philosophy, Iranian philosophy, Japanese philosophy, and Korean philosophy.

Muslim world

The

neighbors.

Protestant Reformation

The early modern period was initiated by the

.

Counter-Reformation and Jesuits

The Counter-Reformation was a period of

during the mid-16th to mid-17th centuries. The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort, involving ecclesiastical or structural reforms as well as a political dimension and spiritual movements.

Such reforms included the foundation of

.

New religious orders were a fundamental part of this trend. Orders such as the

Jesuits

strengthened rural parishes, improved popular piety, helped to curb corruption within the church and set examples that would be a strong impetus for Catholic renewal.

Scientific Revolution

The Great Divergence in scientific discovery, technological innovation, and economic development began in the early modern period as the pace of change in Western countries increased significantly compared to the rest of the world.

During the

, which includes the modern domains of physics, chemistry, biology) through the Middle Ages and Islamic scholars. Major changes of the Scientific Revolution and the 18th century included:

• The ancient
  heliocentric model (Earth and other planets circle the Sun). Known as the Copernican Revolution, the 1543 publication of Nicolaus Copernicus's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, which was influenced by Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi and was based on detailed astronomical observations) is often used to mark the beginning of the Scientific Revolution. Heliocentrism was resisted by the Catholic Church because it contradicted the Bible; the Catholic Inquisition imprisoned Galileo Galilei
  (sometimes called the "father of modern science" for his many empirical discoveries) for promoting this theory.
• Armed with detailed observations from Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler found the idea that the planets moved in ellipses rather than on perfect celestial spheres, publishing Kepler's laws of planetary motion. The commonly held idea that the fixed stars are mounted on a large sphere was replaced by the idea that they are distant suns. Astrology and astronomy began to separate into different disciplines, with only astronomy using scientific methods. Telescope technology improved tremendously as did the study of optics.
• Aristotle's laws of motion were demonstrated to be incorrect, and were replaced by Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation. The 1687 publication of Isaac Newton's 1687 Principia is often used to mark the end of the Scientific Revolution.
• A revival of
  Boyle's Law of gases. Phlogiston theory was refuted by empirical discovery of conservation of mass which, among other discoveries, lead to the chemical revolution
  . The discovery of modern chemical elements would not begin until the 19th century in the late modern period, followed by experimental confirmation of atoms.
• Finally overcoming the difficulties of using human corpses to perform dissections, the anatomical descriptions of the 2nd century
  De Motu Cordis by William Harvey was a major advance in the understanding of the circulatory system
  .
• The field of
  Anton van Leeuwenhoek in the 1670s and probably also by Athanasius Kircher in the 1640s. Though microorganisms were (correctly) proposed as the cause of infectious diseases as soon as they were discovered, this theory was generally dismissed. Though scientific investigation undermined humorism in medicine, miasma theory remained dominant throughout the early modern period. The germ theory of disease
  was not widely accepted until the 1880s, in the late modern period.
• Modern scientific dentistry was founded by Pierre Fauchard.
• The smallpox vaccine was invented in the 1770s and popularized by Edward Jenner in the 1790s, though it was unclear at the time how it worked.
• Great Chain of Being. Binomial nomenclature was used in publications by Gaspard Bauhin
  as early as 1622, and by Linnaeus in 1753.
• The ancient theory of spontaneous generation remained dominant throughout the early modern period, but the history of evolutionary thought includes some who questioned the strictest form of this dogma. The idea of partial common descent was famously promoted by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon. Evolution was not fully articulated and accepted until the 19th century.
• Modern geology began to take shape mainly in the 18th and 19th centuries. Early on, Nicolas Steno proposed the law of superposition in 1669, and various writers in the history of geology began to question the notion derived from the Christian Bible that the Earth was only about 6,000 years old and relatively unchanged over time. Steno and James Hutton are often considered founders of the modern field. The study of fossils and rock types became systematic.
• Early developments in the
  Galvanic electricity
  ".

In the new

:

• philologist William Jones
  .
• The fields of anthropology and paleoanthropology emerged in the 18th century, but much of early modern anthropology is now considered scientific racism.
• The 1776 multi-book publication The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith is considered the foundational text of classical economics.

Scientific discovery would accelerate in the late modern period, and continues today.

Technology

Inventions of the early modern period included the

was the only source available.

Enlightenment and reason

Main article:

17th-century philosophy

The

as well.

Early 17th-century philosophy is often called the Age of Rationalism and is considered to succeed Renaissance philosophy and precede the Age of Enlightenment, but some consider it as the earliest part of the Enlightenment era in philosophy, extending that era to two centuries. This era includes Isaac Newton's Principia and René Descartes' "I think therefore I am" (1637). The 18th century saw the beginning of secularization in Europe, rising to notability in the wake of the French Revolution.

.

(1647–1706) were philosophers sparking the ideas for the furthering of the Enlightenment.

French

.

The French and German developments were further influential in

Polish

philosophy.

The Enlightenment flourished until about 1790–1800, after which the emphasis on reason gave way to Romanticism's emphasis on emotion and a Counter-Enlightenment gained force.

Humanism

With the adoption of large-scale printing after 1500, Italian

.

Developing during the Enlightenment era,

In France, pre-eminent Humanist Guillaume Budé (1467–1540) applied the philological methods of Italian Humanism to the study of antique coinage and to legal history, composing a detailed commentary on Justinian's Code. Although a royal absolutist (and not a republican like the early Italian umanisti), Budé was active in civic life, serving as a diplomat for Francis I and helping to found the Collège des Lecteurs Royaux (later the Collège de France). Meanwhile, Marguerite de Navarre, the sister of Francis I, herself a poet, novelist and religious mystic,^[110] gathered around her and protected a circle of vernacular poets and writers, including Clément Marot, Pierre de Ronsard and François Rabelais.

Death in the early modern period

Mortality rates

During the early modern period, thorough and accurate global data on mortality rates is limited for a number of reasons including disparities in medical practices and views on the dead. However, there still remains data from European countries that still holds valuable information on the mortality rates of infants during this era. In his book Life Under Pressure: Mortality and Living Standards in Europe and Asia, 1700–1900, Tommy Bengtsson provides adequate information pertaining to the data of infant mortality rates in European countries as well as provide necessary contextual influences on these mortality rates.^[111]

European infant mortality rates

Infant mortality was a global concern during the early modern period as many newborns would not survive into childhood. Bengsston provides comparative data on infant mortality averages in a variety of European towns, cities, regions and countries starting from the mid-1600s to the 1800s.^[111] These statistics are measured for infant deaths within the first month of every 1,000 births in a given area.^[111]

For instance, the average infant mortality rate in what is now Germany was 108 infant deaths for every 1,000 births; in

Causes of infant mortality

Bengsston writes that climate conditions were the most important factor in determining infant mortality rates: "For the period from birth to the fifth birthday, [climate] is clearly the most important determinant of death".[111] Winters proved to be harsh on families and their newborns, especially if the other seasons of the year were warmer. This seasonal drop in temperature was a lot for an infant's body to adapt to.

For instance, Italy is home to a very warm climate in the summer, and the temperature drops immensely in the winter.^[111] This lends context to Bengsston writing that "the [Italian] winter peak was the cruelest: during the first 10 days of life, a newborn was four times more likely to die than in the summer".^[111] According to Bengsston, this trend existed amongst cities in different parts of Italy and in various parts of Europe even though cities operated under different economic and agricultural conditions.^[111] This leads Bengsston to his conclusion on what may have caused mortality rates in infants to spike during winter: "The strong protective effect of summer for neonatal deaths leads us to suppose that in many cases, these might be due to the insufficient heating systems of the houses or to the exposure of the newborn to cold during the baptism ceremony. This last hypothesis could explain why the effect was so strong in Italy".^[111]

Capital punishment

During the early modern period, many societies' views on death changed greatly. With the implementation of new torture techniques, and increased public executions, people began to give more value to their life, and their body after death. Along with the views on death, methods of execution also changed. New devices to torture and execute criminals were invented.^[112] The number of criminals executed by gibbeting increased,^[113] as did the total rate of executions during the early modern period.^[113]

End of the early modern period

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The end of the early modern period is usually associated with the Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain around 1750, but began to make substantial changes in many European countries by around 1800.

The

in 1815 marked the end of this period of political upheaval and frequent war, with the rise of new concepts of nationalism and reorganization of military forces. 1815 is the latest year commonly reckoned as the end of the early modern period.

The French Revolutions

Toward the middle and latter stages of the Age of Revolution, the French political and social revolutions and radical change saw the French governmental structure transform. It was previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy. It changed to forms based on Enlightenment principles of citizenship and inalienable rights. The first revolution led to government by the National Assembly, the second by the Legislative Assembly, and the third by the Directory.

The changes were accompanied by violent turmoil, which included the trial and execution of Louis XVI, vast bloodshed and repression during the Reign of Terror, and the French Revolutionary Wars involving every other major European power. Subsequent events that can be traced to the Revolution include the Napoleonic Wars, two separate restorations of the monarchy, and two additional revolutions as modern France took shape. In the following century, France would be governed at one point or another as a republic, constitutional monarchy, and two different empires.

See also

• Cuisine in the early modern world
• Early modern warfare
• Periodization
• Price revolution
• Proto-globalization

Notes

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Further reading

• Burke, Peter (2000). A Social History of Knowledge: From Gutenberg to Diderot. Cambridge, UK: Polity.
  ISBN 978-0745624853. Archived
  from the original on 2020-08-01. Retrieved 2019-10-17.
• Cavallo, Sandra; Evangelisti, Silvia, eds. (2014). A Cultural History of Childhood and Family in the Early Modern Age.
• De Vries, Jan (2010). "The limits of globalization in the early modern world" (PDF). Economic History Review. 63 (3): 710–733.
  S2CID 219969360. Archived
  (PDF) from the original on 2020-10-22. Retrieved 2014-08-29.
• Duara, Prasenjit; et al., eds. (2014). A Companion to Global Historical Thought. Wiley Blackwell.
• Goldstone, Jack A. (2013). "Early Modern World". Sociological Worlds: Comparative and Historical Readings on Society. pp. 249–.
• Goldstone, Jack A. (1993). Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World.
• Goldstone, Jack A. (2000). "The Rise of the West–or not? A revision to socio-economic history". Sociological Theory. 18 (2): 173–194.
  S2CID 143924639
  .
• Lockyer, Roger (2004). Tudor and Stuart Britain: 1485–1714 (3rd ed.). Excerpt Archived 2015-10-11 at the Wayback Machine.
• Knoll, Martin; Reith, Reinhold, eds. (2014). An Environmental History of the Early Modern Period.
• Kümin, Beat A. (2011). A cultural history of food in the early modern age (1600–1800). Berg.
• Newman, Gerald, ed. (1997). Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia. Vol. 27. Taylor & Francis. pp. 51–52.
  ISBN 978-0815303961. Archived from the original on 2020-08-01. Retrieved 2017-09-27. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help) online review Archived 2020-08-03 at the Wayback Machine
  ; 904pp; short articles on Britain by experts.
• Parker, Charles H. (2010). Global Interactions in the Early Modern Age, 1400–1800.
• Pomeranz (2000). The great divergence: China, Europe, and the making of the modern world economy. Princeton University Press. A highly influential statement.
• Scott, Hamish, ed. (2018). The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350–1750. Vol. I: Peoples and Place. excerpt Archived 2023-07-02 at the Wayback Machine.
• Scott, Hamish, ed. (2018). The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350–1750. Vol. II: Cultures and Power. excerpt Archived 2023-07-02 at the Wayback Machine.
• Wong, R. Bin (1997). China Transformed; Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience. Cornell U.P.

External links

• Internet Modern History Sourcebook, fordham.edu
• Discussion of the medieval/modern transition from the introduction to the pioneering
  Cambridge Modern History
  (1902–1912)
• Society for Renaissance Studies
• Early Modern Culture (archived 25 September 2011)
• Early Modern Resources

Preceded by Postclassical Era

History by period 1500–1800 CE

Succeeded by Late modern period