History of Africa

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

For a shorter version of African history, see Africa § History.
Further information: General History of Africa and List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history
Mthethwa
.)
The Bent Pyramid of Sneferu,
c. 2600 BC, an early experiment in true pyramid building
Bornu Empire
and their mounted chief
Ethiopian king Menelik II at the Battle of Adwa in 1896
Part of a series on
Human history
↑ Prehistory (Stone Age)   (Pleistocene epoch)
Holocene
Ancient
Postclassical
  • Timeline
Modern
See also
↓ Future   

The history of Africa begins with the emergence of hominids, archaic humans and — around 300,000–250,000 years ago — anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens), in East Africa, and continues unbroken into the present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation states.[1] The earliest known recorded history arose in Ancient Egypt,[2] and later in Nubia, the Horn of Africa, the Maghreb, and the western Sahel.[3]

Following the desertification of the Sahara, North and East African history became entwined with the Middle East and Southern Europe while the Bantu expansion swept from modern day Cameroon (Central West Africa) across much of the sub-Saharan continent in waves between around 1000 BC and 1 AD, creating a linguistic commonality across much of the central and Southern continent.[4]

Many kingdoms have formed and existed throughout African history, with some notable states including:

Some societies maintained an

African traditional religions.[5][6]

From the 7th century AD,

Fulani Jihad
in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Slavery in Africa has historically been widespread and systems of servitude and slavery were common in parts of Africa in ancient times, as they were in much of the ancient world.[7] When the trans-Saharan, Red Sea, Indian Ocean and Atlantic slave trades began, many of the pre-existing local African slave systems started supplying captives for slave markets outside Africa.[8][9] The Atlantic slave trade was the most exploited of these, and between 1450 and 1900 transported upwards of 12 million enslaved people overseas in terrible conditions with many dying on the journey.[10][11]

From 1870 to 1914, driven by the

local beliefs.[15]

Following struggles for independence in many parts of the continent, and a weakened Europe after the

Second World War (1939–1945), waves of decolonisation took place across the continent, culminating in the 1960 Year of Africa and the establishment of the Organisation of African Unity in 1963, the predecessor to the African Union.[16]

In

archaeology, and genetics
have been vital in rediscovering the great African civilisations of antiquity, as well as documenting those of later periods.

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistoric Africa
Further information: Prehistoric North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa § Prehistory, Prehistoric West Africa, Prehistoric Central Africa, Prehistoric East Africa, Horn of Africa § Prehistory, Prehistoric Southern Africa, and African archaeology
Reconstruction of "Lucy"

The first known

bipedal locomotion which freed their hands. This gave them a crucial advantage, enabling them to live in both forested areas and on the open savanna at a time when Africa was drying up and the savanna was encroaching on forested areas. This would have occurred 10 to 5 million years ago, but these claims are controversial because biologists and genetics have humans appearing around the last 70 thousand to 200 thousand years.[18]

The fossil record shows

Homo sapiens (also known as "modern humans" or "anatomically modern humans") living in Africa by about 350,000–260,000 years ago. The earliest known Homo sapiens fossils include the Jebel Irhoud remains from Morocco (c. 315,000 years ago),[19] the Florisbad Skull from South Africa (c. 259,000 years ago), and the Omo remains from Ethiopia (c. 233,000 years ago).[20][21][22][23][24] Scientists have suggested that Homo sapiens may have arisen between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago through a merging of populations in East Africa and South Africa.[25][26]

Evidence of a variety of behaviors indicative of Behavioral modernity date to the African Middle Stone Age, associated with early Homo sapiens and their emergence. Abstract imagery, widened subsistence strategies, and other "modern" behaviors have been discovered from that period in Africa, especially South, North, and East Africa.

The

geometric designs. Using multiple dating techniques, the site was confirmed to be around 77,000 and 100–75,000 years old.[27][28] Ostrich egg shell containers engraved with geometric designs dating to 60,000 years ago were found at Diepkloof, South Africa.[29] Beads and other personal ornamentation have been found from Morocco which might be as much as 130,000 years old; as well, the Cave of Hearths in South Africa has yielded a number of beads dating from significantly prior to 50,000 years ago,[30] and shell beads dating to about 75,000 years ago have been found at Blombos Cave, South Africa.[31][32][33]

Around 65–50,000 years ago, the species' expansion

out of Africa launched the colonization of the planet by modern human beings.[34][35][36][37] By 10,000 BC, Homo sapiens had spread to most corners of Afro-Eurasia. Their dispersals are traced by linguistic, cultural and genetic evidence.[38][39][40] Eurasian back-migrations, specifically West-Eurasian backflow, started in the early Holocene or already earlier in the Paleolithic period, sometimes between 30 and 15,000 years ago, followed by pre-Neolithic and Neolithic migration waves from the Middle East, mostly affecting Northern Africa, the Horn of Africa, and wider regions of the Sahel zone and East Africa.[41]

Pre-Neolithic and Neolithic migration events in Africa.[41]

Affad 23 is an archaeological site located in the Affad region of southern Dongola Reach in northern Sudan,[42] which hosts "the well-preserved remains of prehistoric camps (relics of the oldest open-air hut in the world) and diverse hunting and gathering loci some 50,000 years old".[43][44][45]

Eemian
(bottom)

Around 16,000 BC, from the

Western Asia, which domesticated its wild grains, wheat and barley. Between 10,000 and 8000 BC, Northeast Africa
was cultivating wheat and barley and raising sheep and cattle from Southwest Asia.

A wet climatic phase in Africa turned the Ethiopian Highlands into a mountain forest. Omotic speakers domesticated enset around 6500–5500 BC. Around 7000 BC, the settlers of the Ethiopian highlands domesticated donkeys, and by 4000 BC domesticated donkeys had spread to Southwest Asia. Cushitic speakers, partially turning away from cattle herding, domesticated teff and finger millet between 5500 and 3500 BC.[46]

During the 11th millennium

castor beans, and cotton were also collected and domesticated. The people started capturing wild cattle and holding them in circular thorn hedges, resulting in domestication.[49]

They also started making

Tichitt, Oualata). Fishing, using bone-tipped harpoons, became a major activity in the numerous streams and lakes formed from the increased rains.[50] Mande peoples have been credited with the independent development of agriculture about 4000–3000 BC.[51]

9th-century bronze staff head in form of a coiled snake, Igbo-Ukwu, Nigeria

Evidence of the early smelting of metals – lead, copper, and bronze – dates from the fourth millennium BC.[52]

Egyptians smelted copper during the

predynastic period, and bronze came into use after 3,000 BC at the latest[53] in Egypt and Nubia. Nubia became a major source of copper as well as of gold.[54] The use of gold and silver in Egypt dates back to the predynastic period.[55][56]

In the Aïr Mountains of present-day Niger people smelted copper independently of developments in the Nile valley between 3,000 and 2,500 BC. They used a process unique to the region, suggesting that the technology was not brought in from outside; it became more mature by about 1,500 BC.[56]

By the 1st millennium BC

iron working had reached Northwestern Africa, Egypt, and Nubia.[57] Zangato and Holl document evidence of iron-smelting in the Central African Republic and Cameroon that may date back to 3,000 to 2,500 BC.[58] Assyrians using iron weapons pushed Nubians out of Egypt in 670 BC, after which the use of iron became widespread in the Nile valley.[59]

The theory that

Meroe[60] is no longer widely accepted, and some researchers believe that sub-Saharan Africans invented iron metallurgy independently. Metalworking in West Africa has been dated as early as 2,500 BC at Egaro west of the Termit in Niger, and iron working was practiced there by 1,500 BC.[61] Iron smelting has been dated to 2,000 BC in southeast Nigeria.[62] Central Africa provides possible evidence of iron working as early as the 3rd millennium BC.[63] Iron smelting developed in the area between Lake Chad and the African Great Lakes between 1,000 and 600 BC, and in West Africa around 2,000 BC, long before the technology reached Egypt. Before 500 BC, the Nok culture in the Jos Plateau was already smelting iron.[64][65][66][67][68][69] Archaeological sites containing iron-smelting furnaces and slag have been excavated at sites in the Nsukka region of southeast Nigeria in Igboland: dating to 2,000 BC at the site of Lejja (Eze-Uzomaka 2009)[62][70] and to 750 BC and at the site of Opi (Holl 2009).[70] The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has also yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896–773 BC and 907–796 BC respectively.[69]

Antiquity (3600 BC – 500 AD)

Main article: Ancient Africa
Further information: History of North Africa § Classical period, History of West Africa § Iron Age, History of Central Africa § Ancient history, History of East Africa § Ancient history, and History of Southern Africa § Ancient history

North-East Africa and the Horn of Africa

North-East Africa

Main articles:
Kingdom of Kerma, Middle Kingdom of Egypt, New Kingdom of Egypt, Kingdom of Kush, History of Persian Egypt, Ptolemaic dynasty, Roman Egypt, Makuria, Alodia, and Nobatia
Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (c. 3150 BC to 30 BC)

The

Second Intermediate Period.[75]
: 68–71 

The

unified Egypt, with Upper Egypt becoming a rich agricultural region whose produce Lower Egypt then sold and traded.[80]
: 77 

In 525 BC Egypt was conquered by the expansive

Aksumites caused their disintegration into Makuria, Alodia, and Nobatia in the 5th century AD, whilst the Romans managed to hold on to Egypt
for the rest of the ancient period.

Horn of Africa

Main articles:
D'mt, Ancient Somali city-states, and Kingdom of Aksum
The Kingdom of Aksum in the 6th century AD.

In the

D'mt beginning in 980 BC, whose people developed irrigation schemes, used ploughs, grew millet, and made iron tools and weapons. In modern-day Somalia and Djibouti there was the Macrobian Kingdom, with archaeological discoveries indicating the possibility of other unknown sophisticated civilisations at this time.[83][84] After D'mt's fall in the 5th century BC the Ethiopian Plateau came to be ruled by numerous smaller unknown kingdoms who experienced strong south Arabian influence, until the growth and expansion of Aksum in the 1st century BC.[85] Along the Horn's coast there were many ancient Somali city-states which thrived off of the wider Red Sea trade and transported their cargo via beden, exporting myrrh, frankincense, spices, gum, incense, and ivory, with freedom from Roman interference causing Indians to give the cities a lucrative monopoly on cinnamon from ancient India.[86]

The

Sassanid Empire and the Himyarite Kingdom
in Arabia.

North-West Africa

Main articles: History of North Africa, Ancient Carthage, Numidia, Mauretania, Mauro-Roman Kingdom, and Africa (Roman province)
Carthaginian Empire
in 323 BC

Further north-west, the

mainland Italy, only being recalled after the Romans conducted a bold naval invasion of the Carthaginian homeland and then defeated him in climactic battle in 202 BC.[94]
: 256–257 

Aures, Nemencha, Capsus, Dorsale, Cabaon
.

Carthage was forced to give up their fleet, and the subsequent collapse of their empire would produce two further polities in the Maghreb; Numidia, a polity made up of two Numidian tribal federations which further centralised following the Massylii conquest of the Masaesyli, which assisted the Romans in the Second Punic War; Mauretania, a Mauri tribal kingdom, home of the legendary King Atlas; and various tribes such as Garamantes, Musulamii, and Bavares. The Third Punic War would result in Carthage's total defeat in 146 BC and the Romans established the province of Africa, with Numidia assuming control of many of Carthage's African ports. Towards the end of the 2nd century BC Mauretania fought alongside Numidia's Jugurtha in the Jugurthine War against the Romans after he had usurped the Numidian throne from a Roman ally. Together they inflicted heavy casualties that quaked the Roman Senate, with the war only ending inconclusively when Mauretania's Bocchus I sold out the Jugurtha to the Romans.[95]: 258  At the turn of the millennium they would both would face the same fate as Carthage and be conquered by the Romans who established Mauretania and Numidia as provinces of their empire, whilst Musulamii, led by Tacfarinas, and Garamantes were eventually defeated in war in the 1st century AD however weren't conquered.[96]: 261–262  In the 5th century AD the Vandals conquered north Africa precipitating the fall of Rome. Swathes of indigenous peoples would regain self-governance in the Mauro-Roman Kingdom and its numerous successor polities in the Maghreb, namely the kingdoms of Ouarsenis, Aurès, and Altava. The Vandals ruled Ifriqiya for a century until Byzantine reconquest in the early 6th century AD. The Byzantines and the Berber kingdoms fought minor inconsequential conflicts, such as in the case of Garmul, however largely coexisted[97]: 284  Further inland to the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa were the Sanhaja in modern-day Algeria, a broad grouping of three groupings of tribal confederations, one of which is the Masmuda grouping in modern-day Morocco, along with the nomadic Zenata; their composite tribes would later go onto shape much of North African history.

West Africa

Main articles:
Djenne-Djenno, Ghana Empire, History of the Soninke people, and Igodomigodo
Nok sculpture

In the western

Benin Empire.[103]

The Ghana Empire at its greatest extent

Towards the end of the 3rd century AD, a wet period in the Sahel created areas for human habitation and exploitation which had not been habitable for the best part of a millennium, with the Kingdom of Wagadu, the predecessor to the Ghana Empire, rising out of the Tichitt culture, growing wealthy following the introduction of the camel to the western Sahel, revolutionising the trans-Saharan trade which linked their capital and Aoudaghost with Tahert and Sijilmasa in North Africa.[104] Its founding myth holds that its first king came to power after killing Bida, a serpent deity, although accounts differ, with some stating he did a deal with Bida to sacrifice one maiden a year in exchange for plenty of rainfall and gold supply. Wagadu's core traversed modern-day southern Mauritania and western Mali, and Soninke tradition portrays early Ghana as very warlike, with horse-mounted warriors key to increasing its territory and population, although details of their expansion are extremely scarce.[105] Wagadu made its profits from maintaining a monopoly on gold heading north and salt heading south, despite not controlling the gold fields themselves, which were located in the forest region.[106] It is possible that Wagadu's dominance on trade allowed for the gradual consolidation of many smaller polities into a confederated state, whose composites stood in varying relations to the core, from fully administered to nominal tribute-paying parity.[107] Based on large tumuli scattered across West Africa dating to this period, it has been stipulated that relative to Wagadu there were many more simultaneous and preceding kingdoms which have unfortunately been lost to time.[108][109]

Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa

Main article: Bantu expansion

1 = 2000–1500 BC origin

2 = c. 1500 BC first dispersal
     2.a = Eastern Bantu
     2.b = Western Bantu

3 = 1000–500 BC Urewe nucleus of Eastern Bantu

4–7 = southward advance

9 = 500–1 BC Congo nucleus

10 = AD 1–1000 last phase[110][111][112]

In Central Africa the Sao civilisation flourished for over a millennium beginning in the 6th century BC. The Sao lived by the Chari River south of Lake Chad in territory that later became part of present-day Cameroon and Chad. They are the earliest people to have left clear traces of their presence in the territory of northern Cameroon. Today several peoples, particularly the Sara, claim to have descended from the Sao. Sao artifacts show that they were skilled workers in bronze, copper, and iron,[113] with finds including bronze sculptures, terracotta statues of human and animal figures, coins, funerary urns, household utensils, jewellery, highly decorated pottery, and spears.[114] Nearby, around Lake Ejagham in south-west Cameroon, the Ekoi civilisation rose circa 2nd century AD, and are most notable for constructing the Ikom monoliths.

The

Zambezi basin in the 2nd century BC. The Bantu then pushed westward to the savannahs of present-day Angola and eastward into Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe in the 1st century AD, forming the Gokomere culture in the 5th century AD, the predecessor to Leopard's Kopje, which would later evolve into the kingdoms of Mapungubwe and Zimbabwe.[119] The second thrust from the Great Lakes was eastward, also in the 1st century AD, expanding to Kenya, Tanzania, and the Swahili coast
.

Prior to this migration, the northern part of the

semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer people who are thought to have descended from the first inhabitants of Southern Africa 100,000 years BP, making them one of the oldest cultures on Earth.[124]

Post-classical period (500–1500)

Main article: Medieval and early modern Africa
Further information: History of North Africa § Arrival of Islam, History of West Africa § Sahelian kingdoms, History of Central Africa § Post-classical history, History of East Africa § Post-classical history, and History of Southern Africa § Post-classical history

Disclaimer: this section is in the process of being written

North Africa

Northern Africa

Main articles: History of North Africa, Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, Fatimid Caliphate, Almoravid dynasty, Almohad Caliphate, Marinid Sultanate, Hafsid dynasty, Kingdom of Tlemcen, Wattasid dynasty, Ayyubid dynasty, and Mamluk Sultanate

The turn of the 6th century saw much of North Africa controlled by the Byzantine Empire. Christianity was the state religion of the empire, and Semitic and Coptic subjects in Roman Egypt faced persecution due to their 'heretical' Miaphysite churches, paying a heavy tax. The Exarchate of Africa covered much of Ifriqiya and the eastern Maghreb, surrounded by numerous Berber kingdoms that followed Christianity heavily syncretised with traditional Berber religion. The interior was dominated by various groupings of tribal confederations, namely the nomadic Zenata, the Masmuda of Sanhaja in modern-day Morocco, and the other two Sanhaja in the Sahara in modern-day Algeria, who all mainly followed traditional Berber religion. In 618 the Sassanids conquered Egypt during the Byzantine-Sasanian War, however the province was reconquered three years later.

Umar II
, c. 720

The 7th century saw the inception of Islam and the beginning of the Muslim conquests intent on converting peoples to Islam.[125]: 56  The nascent Rashidun Caliphate won a series of crucial victories and expanded rapidly, forcing the Byzantines to evacuate Syria. With Byzantine regional presence shattered, the Muslim armies quickly conquered Egypt by 642, generally facing little resistance by subjects odious of Byzantine rule. Their attention would then turn west to the Maghreb where the Exarchate of Africa had declared independence from Constantinople under Gregory the Patrician. The Muslims readily annexed Ifriqiya and in 647 defeated and killed Gregory and his army decisively in battle. Not wishing to annex the territory, they accepted the proposal of annual tribute from the populations of the Maghreb. After a brief civil war, the Rashidun were supplanted by the Umayyad dynasty in 661 and the capital of the Muslim empire moved from Medina to Damascus. With intentions to expand further in all directions, the Muslims returned to the Maghreb to find the Byzantines had reinforced the Exarchate and allied with the Kingdom of Altava under Kusaila, who was approached prior to battle and convinced to convert to Islam. Initially having become neutral, Kusaila objected to integration into the empire and in 683 destroyed the poorly supplied Arab army and took the newly-found Kairouan, causing an epiphany among the Berber that this conflict was not just against the Byzantine's. The Arabs returned and in 690 defeated Kusaila and Altava, and, after a set-back, expelled the Byzantines from North Africa. To the west, Kahina of the Kingdom of the Aurès declared opposition to the Arab invasion and repelled their armies, securing her position as the uncontested ruler of the Maghreb for five years. The Arabs received reinforcements and in 701 Kahina was killed and the kingdom defeated. They completed their conquest of the rest of the Maghreb, with large swathes of Berbers embracing Islam, and the combined Arab and Berber armies would use this territory as a springboard into Iberia to expand the Muslim empire further.[126]: 47–48 

Idrisid state, around 820 CE, showing its maximal extent
Approximate extent of Rustamid control in the 9th century
Aghlabid
authority

Mass amounts of

Aghlabids controlling Ifriqiya under only nominal Abbasid rule and in 868 when the Tulunids wrestled the independence of Egypt for four decades before again coming under Abbasid control.[132]: 172, 260  Late in the 9th century, a revolt by East African slaves in the Abbasid's homeland of Iraq diverted its resources away from its other territories, devastating important ports in the Persian Gulf, and was eventually put down after decades of violence, resulting in between 300,000-2,500,000 dead.[133][134]
: 714 

Evolution of the Fatimid Caliphate
Almoravid empire
at its greatest extent

This gradual bubbling of disintegration of the Middle Eastern caliphate boiled over when the

Christian invasions of Egypt, creating a power vacuum in North Africa. The Zengid dynasty, nominally under Seljuk suzerainty, invaded on the pretext of defending Egypt from the Christians, and usurped the position of vizier in the caliphate.[139]
: 186–189 

Extent of the Mamluk Sultanate under Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad
Almohad empire
at its greatest extent, c. 1180–1212
Hafsids
c. 1360

Following the assassination of the previous holder, the position of

Mamluks reach their greatest extent with efficacious economic reforms, however the threat of the growing Ottomans
posed a great challenge to the empire at the turn of the 16th century.

Nubia

This section is being written

East Africa

Horn of Africa

This section is being written

Swahili coast, Madagascar, and the Comoro Islands

This section is being written

Northern Great Lakes

This section is being written

West Africa

The western Sahel and Sudan

This section is being written

Within the Niger bend and the forest region

This section is being written

Central Africa

The central Sahel

This section is being written

The Congo basin

This section is being written

Southern Africa

Southern Great Lakes

This section is being written

Zambezi basin

This section is being written

South of the Zambezi basin

This section is being written

Early and late modern period (1500–1878)

Main article: Medieval and early modern Africa
Further information: History of West Africa § Sahelian kingdoms, History of Central Africa § Post-classical history, History of East Africa § Post-classical history, and History of Southern Africa § Post-classical history

Disclaimer: this section is in the process of being rewritten and is a poor representation of African history in its current state

Early colonialism

The Menceyatos Confederation on Tenerife is notable for being the first African state to be subjected to modern European colonialism with the Spanish conquest of the Canary Islands in the 15th century. This caused the genocide of the native Berber population, and was used as a blueprint for the colonisation of the Americas.[need quotation to verify] Prior to the scaling of European colonialism in the 19th century, the Portuguese were the only imperial power to gain much more than a foothold in Africa beginning in the 16th century with the establishment of Portuguese Angola and the unsuccessful Kongo-Portuguese wars, along with Portuguese Mozambique and the Portuguese conflict with Kilwa, which the Portuguese conquered after efficacious diplomatic efforts to dismantle its administration.[need quotation to verify]

Colonial period (1878–1951)

Main article: Colonial Africa
Further information: History of West Africa § Slave trade, History of Central Africa § Slave trade, History of East Africa § Slave trade, History of Southern Africa § Slave trade, History of North Africa § European colonial period, History of West Africa § Colonial period, History of Central Africa § Colonial period, History of East Africa § Colonial period, and History of Southern Africa § Colonial period

Between 1878 and 1898, European states partitioned and conquered most of Africa. For 400 years, European nations had mainly limited their involvement to trading stations on the African coast, with few daring to venture inland. The

Hiram S. Maxim developed the maxim gun, the model of the modern-day machine gun. European states kept these weapons largely among themselves by refusing to sell these weapons to African leaders.[144]

African germs took numerous European lives and deterred

Tropical Africa. In 1854, the discovery of quinine and other medical innovations helped to make conquest and colonization in Africa possible.[145]

There were strong motives for conquest of Africa. Raw materials were needed for European factories. Prestige and imperial rivalries were at play. Acquiring African colonies would show rivals that a nation was powerful and significant. These contextual factors forged the Scramble for Africa.[146]

In the 1880s the European powers had carved up almost all of Africa (only Ethiopia and Liberia were independent). The Europeans were captivated by the philosophies of eugenics and Social Darwinism, and some attempted to justify all this by branding it civilising missions. Imperialism ruled until after World War II when forces of African nationalism grew in intensity and vigour. In the 1950s and 1960s the colonial holdings became independent states. The process was usually peaceful but there were several long bitter bloody civil wars, as in Algeria,[147] Kenya,[148] and elsewhere. Across Africa the powerful new force of nationalism drew upon the advanced militaristic skills that natives learned during the world wars serving in the British, French, and other armies. It led to organizations that were not controlled by or endorsed by either the colonial powers nor the traditional local power structures that had collaborated with the colonial powers. Nationalistic organizations began to challenge both the traditional and the new colonial structures, and finally displaced them. Leaders of nationalist movements took control when the European authorities evacuated; many ruled for decades or until they died. These structures involved political, educational, religious, and other social organizations. In recent decades, many African countries have undergone the triumph and defeat of nationalistic fervour, changing in the process the loci of the centralizing state power and patrimonial state.[149][150][151]

Areas controlled by European powers in 1939. British (red) and Belgian (marroon) colonies fought with the Allies. Italian (light green) with the Axis. French colonies (dark blue) fought alongside the Allies until the Fall of France in June 1940. Vichy was in control until the Free French prevailed in late 1942. Portuguese (dark green) and Spanish (yellow) colonies remained neutral.

Postcolonial period (1951 – present)

Main article: Postcolonial Africa
Further information: History of North Africa § Post-colonial period, History of West Africa § Post-colonial period, History of Central Africa § Post-colonial period, History of East Africa § Post-colonial period, and History of Southern Africa § Post-colonial period
See also: Decolonisation of Africa, Neocolonialism, CFA franc, Status of forces agreement, and Historical African place names
Dates of independence of African countries

The wave of

decolonization of Africa started with Libya in 1951, although Liberia, South Africa, Egypt and Ethiopia were already independent. Many countries followed in the 1950s and 1960s, with a peak in 1960 with the Year of Africa, which saw 17 African nations declare independence, including a large part of French West Africa. Most of the remaining countries gained independence throughout the 1960s, although some colonizers (Portugal in particular) were reluctant to relinquish sovereignty, resulting in bitter wars of independence which lasted for a decade or more. The last African countries to gain formal independence were Guinea-Bissau (1974), Mozambique (1975) and Angola (1975) from Portugal; Djibouti from France in 1977; Zimbabwe from the United Kingdom in 1980; and Namibia from South Africa in 1990. Eritrea later split off from Ethiopia in 1993.[152] The nascent countries decided to keep their colonial borders in the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) conference of 1964 due to fears of civil wars and regional instability, and placed emphasis on Pan-Africanism, with the OAU later developing into the African Union.[153] During the 1990s and early 2000s there were the First and Second Congo Wars, often termed the African World Wars.[154][155]

Historiography

Main article: African historiography
See also: List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history § History periods and sources

Historiography of British Africa

The first historical studies in English appeared in the 1890s, and followed one of four approaches. 1) The territorial narrative was typically written by a veteran soldier or civil servant who gave heavy emphasis to what he had seen. 2) The "apologia" were essays designed to justify British policies. 3) Popularizers tried to reach a large audience. 4) Compendia appeared designed to combine academic and official credentials. Professional scholarship appeared around 1900, and began with the study of business operations, typically using government documents and unpublished archives.[156]

The economic approach was widely practiced in the 1930s, primarily to provide descriptions of the changes underway in the previous half-century. In 1935, American historian William L. Langer published The Diplomacy of Imperialism: 1890–1902, a book that is still widely cited. In 1939, Oxford professor Reginald Coupland published The Exploitation of East Africa, 1856–1890: The Slave Trade and the Scramble, another popular treatment.[citation needed]

World War II diverted most scholars to wartime projects and accounted for a pause in scholarship during the 1940s.[157]

By the 1950s many African students were studying in British universities, and they produced a demand for new scholarship, and started themselves to supply it as well.

John Andrew Gallagher, especially with their studies of the impact of free trade on Africa.[158] In 1985 The Oxford History of South Africa (2 vols.) was published,[159] attempting to synthesize the available materials. In 2013, The Oxford Handbook of Modern African History was published,[160] bringing the scholarship up to date.[citation needed
]

Historiographic and Conceptual Problems

The current major problem in

Anglophone African historiography.[161] African and African-American scholars also bear some responsibility in perpetuating this European Africanist preserved paradigm.[161]

Following conceptualizations of Africa developed by

Islamic world.[161]

As a result of these racialized constructions and the conceptual separation of Africa, darker skinned North Africans, such as the so-called

Draa) of Morocco consider it to be an offensive term.[161] Despite its historicity and etymology being questionable, European colonialists and European Africanists have used the term Haratin as identifiers for groups of "black" and apparently "mixed" people found in Algeria, Mauritania, and Morocco.[161]

The

Saadian invasion of the Songhai Empire serves as the precursor to later narratives that grouped darker skinned Maghrebians together and identified their origins as being Sub-Saharan West Africa.[162] With gold serving as a motivation behind the Saadian invasion of the Songhai Empire, this made way for changes in latter behaviors toward dark-skinned Africans.[162] As a result of changing behaviors toward dark-skinned Africans, darker skinned Maghrebians were forcibly recruited into the army of Ismail Ibn Sharif as the Black Guard, based on the claim of them having descended from enslaved peoples from the times of the Saadian invasion.[162] Shurafa historians of the modern period would later use these events in narratives about the manumission of enslaved "Hartani" (a vague term, which, by merit of it needing further definition, is implicit evidence for its historicity being questionable).[162] The narratives derived from Shurafa historians would later become analogically incorporated into the Americanized narratives (e.g., the trans-Saharan slave trade, imported enslaved Sub-Saharan West Africans, darker skinned Magrebian freedmen) of the present-day European Africanist paradigm.[162]

As opposed to having been developed through field research, the

trans-Atlantic slave trade.[161]

The trans-Saharan slave trade has been used as a

Muslim slaver caravans, from the south of Saharan Africa, into North Africa and the Islamic world.[161]

Despite being an inherited part of the 19th century religious polemical narratives, the use of race in the secularist narrative of the present-day European Africanist paradigm has given the paradigm an appearance of possessing

neologisms) of 19th century European abolitionists about Africa and Africans are silenced, but still preserved, in the secularist narratives of the present-day European Africanist paradigm.[161] The Orientalist stereotyped hypersexuality of the Moors were viewed by 19th century European abolitionists as deriving from the Quran.[162] The reference to times prior, often used in concert with biblical references, by 19th century European abolitionists, may indicate that realities described of Moors may have been literary fabrications.[162] The purpose of these apparent literary fabrications may have been to affirm their view of the Bible as being greater than the Quran and to affirm the viewpoints held by the readers of their composed works.[162] The adoption of 19th century European abolitionists' religious polemical narrative into the present-day European Africanist paradigm may have been due to its correspondence with the established textual tradition.[162] The use of stereotyped hypersexuality for Moors are what 19th century European abolitionists and the present-day European Africanist paradigm have in common.[162]

Due to a lack of considerable development in field research regarding enslavement in Islamic societies, this has resulted in the present-day European Africanist paradigm relying on unreliable estimates for the trans-Saharan slave trade.[162] However, insufficient data has also been used as a justification for continued use of the faulty present-day European Africanist paradigm.[162] Darker skinned Maghrebians, particularly in Morocco, have grown weary of the lack of discretion foreign academics have shown toward them, bear resentment toward the way they have been depicted by foreign academics, and consequently, find the intended activities of foreign academics to be predictable.[162] Rather than continuing to rely on the faulty present-day European Africanist paradigm, Mohamed (2012) recommends revising and improving the current Africanist paradigm (e.g., critical inspection of the origins and introduction of the present characterization of the Saharan caravan; reconsideration of what makes the trans-Saharan slave trade, within its own context in Africa, distinct from the trans-Atlantic slave trade; realistic consideration of the experiences of darker-skinned Maghrebians within their own regional context).[162]

Conceptual Problems

Merolla (2017)[163] has indicated that the academic study of Sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa by Europeans developed with North Africa being conceptually subsumed within the Middle East and Arab world, whereas, the study of Sub-Saharan Africa was viewed as conceptually distinct from North Africa, and as its own region, viewed as inherently the same.[163] The common pattern of conceptual separation of continental Africa into two regions and the view of conceptual sameness within the region of Sub-Saharan Africa has continued until present-day.[163] Yet, with increasing exposure of this problem, discussion about the conceptual separation of Africa has begun to develop.[163]

The

racialized conceptual separation of Africa came as a result of the Berlin Conference and the Scramble for Africa.[163]

In African and Berber literary studies, scholarship has remained largely separate from one another.

Europe.[163] Among studies in the Francophone world, ties between North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa have been denied or downplayed, while the ties (e.g., religious, cultural) between the regions and peoples (e.g., Arab language and literature with Berber language and literature) of the Middle East and North Africa have been established by diminishing the differences between the two and selectively focusing on the similarities between the two.[163] In the Francophone world, construction of racialized regions, such as Black Africa (Sub-Saharan Africans) and White Africa (North Africans, e.g., Berbers and Arabs), has also developed.[163]

Despite having invoked and used identities in reference to the racialized conceptualizations of Africa (e.g., North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa) to oppose imposed identities,

Black is Beautiful) have invoked and used black identity to oppose colonialism and racism.[163] While Berber studies has largely sought to establish ties between Berbers and North Africa with Arabs and the Middle East, Merolla (2017) indicated that efforts to establish ties between Berbers and North Africa with Sub-Saharan Africans and Sub-Saharan Africa have recently started to being undertaken.[163]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Evolution of Modern Humans: Early Modern Homo sapiens". www2.palomar.edu. Retrieved 2020-05-27.
  2. ^ "Recordkeeping and History". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2023-01-22.
  3. ^ "Early African Civilization". Study.com. Retrieved 2023-01-22.
  4. ^ "History of Africa". Visit Africa. Retrieved 2020-05-27.
  5. ISBN 978-0-608390352
    .
  6. ^ Boyes, Steve (October 31, 2013). "Getting to Know Africa: 50 Interesting Facts". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 2013-12-27.
  7. ISBN 978-1-139-03499-9
    . For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.
  8. ^ Lovejoy, Paul E. (2012). Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa. London: Cambridge University Press.
  9. ISBN 9780674724877
    .
  10. ISBN 0-374-11396-3
    , p. 4. "It is now estimated that 11,863,000 slaves were shipped across the Atlantic." (Note in original: Paul E. Lovejoy, "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature", in Journal of African History 30 (1989), p. 368.)
  11. ^ Patrick Manning, "The Slave Trade: The Formal Dermographics of a Global System" in Joseph E. Inikori and Stanley L. Engerman (eds), The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe (Duke University Press, 1992), pp. 117-44, online at pp. 119-20.
  12. ISBN 978-981-99-0244-6
    .
  13. doi:10.1017/S0022050718000128
    .
  14. ISBN 9780691027937
    .
  15. doi:10.3366/swc.1996.2.2.183
    .
  16. OCLC 33131573
    .
  17. JSTOR 20024011
    .
  18. ^ Shillington (2005), p. 2.
  19. doi:10.1038/nature.2017.22114
    . Retrieved 11 June 2017.
  20. PMID 27298468
    .
  21. ^ Sample, Ian (7 June 2017). "Oldest Homo sapiens bones ever found shake foundations of the human story". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 June 2017.
  22. S2CID 256771372
    .
  23. PMID 30007846
    .
  24. PMID 35022610
    .
  25. ^ Zimmer, Carl (10 September 2019). "Scientists Find the Skull of Humanity's Ancestor – on a Computer – By comparing fossils and CT scans, researchers say they have reconstructed the skull of the last common forebear of modern humans". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2022-01-03. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
  26. PMID 31506422
    .
  27. S2CID 31169551
    .
  28. PMID 19487016
    .
  29. PMID 20194764
    .
  30. PMID 11102266
    .
  31. S2CID 32356688
    .
  32. PMID 15656934
    .
  33. PMID 23498114
    .
  34. PMID 26853362
    .
  35. PMID 25770088
    .
  36. PMID 30837540
    .
  37. PMID 31196864
    .
  38. ^ Shillington (2005), pp. 2–3.
  39. Luca Cavalli-Sforza
    pioneered tracing the spread of modern humans from Africa.
  40. PMID 19407144
    .
  41. ^
    S2CID 219974966
    .
  42. S2CID 161078189
    .
  43. ^ Osypiński, Piotr (2020). "Unearthing Pan-African crossroad? Significance of the middle Nile valley in prehistory" (PDF). National Science Centre.
  44. OCLC 1374884636
    .
  45. OCLC 1374884636
    .
  46. ^ Diamond (1997), pp. 126–127; Ehret (2002), pp. 64–75, 80–81, 87–88.
  47. ^ Bradley, Simon (18 January 2007). "A Swiss-led team of archaeologists has discovered pieces of the oldest African pottery in central Mali, dating back to at least 9,400BC". Swiss Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2012-03-06.
  48. JSTOR 43135518
    .
  49. ^ Ehret (2002), pp. 64–75.
  50. ^ "Katanda Bone Harpoon Point". The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program. 2010-01-22. Retrieved 2019-02-19.
  51. ^ "Mande | people".
  52. ^ Nicholson & Shaw (2000), p. 168.
  53. ^ Nicholson & Shaw (2000), pp. 149–160.
  54. ISBN 1-4772-4273-2, 978-1-4772-4273-5
    .
  55. ^ Nicholson & Shaw (2000), pp. 161–165, 170.
  56. ^ a b Ehret (2002), pp. 136–137.
  57. ^ Martin and O'Meara. "Africa, 3rd Ed." Archived 2007-10-11 at the Wayback Machine Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1995.
  58. doi:10.3213/1612-1651-10153
    .
  59. ISBN 0-313-31323-7
    .
  60. S2CID 162880295
    .
  61. ^ Iron in Africa: Revising the History, UNESCO Aux origines de la métallurgie du fer en Afrique, Une ancienneté méconnue: Afrique de l'Ouest et Afrique centrale.
  62. ^ a b Eze–Uzomaka, Pamela. "Iron and its influence on the prehistoric site of Lejja". Academia.edu. University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria. Retrieved 12 December 2014.
  63. S2CID 206583802
    .
  64. ^ Shillington (2005), pp. 37–39.
  65. ISBN 0-19-521921-X
    .
  66. S2CID 145379030
    .
  67. ^ Tylecote, Ronald-Frank (1975). "The Origin of Iron Smelting in Africa". West African Journal of Archaeology. 5: 1–9. Retrieved 16 May 2021.
  68. ^ Eggert, Manfred (2014). "Early iron in West and Central Africa". In Breunig, P (ed.). Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context. Frankfurt, Germany: Africa Magna Verlag Press. pp. 51–59.
  69. ^
    ISBN 9783937248462
    .
  70. ^
    S2CID 161611760
    .
  71. ^ Abu Bakr, Abdel (1981). "Pharoanic Egypt". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing.
  72. ^ Abu Bakr, Abdel (1981). "Pharoanic Egypt". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing.
  73. ISBN 9781444338386
    . She states, "To date, Kerma-culture has been found from the region of the First Cataract to upstream of the Fourth Cataract."
  74. ^ Buzon, Michele (2011). "Nubian identity in the Bronze Age. Patterns of cultural and biological variation". Retrieved 30 March 2017.
  75. ^ Abu Bakr, Abdel (1981). "Pharoanic Egypt". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing.
  76. ^ "Tomb Reveals Ancient Egypt's Humiliating Secrets". Daily Times. 29 July 2003. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013.
  77. ^ Abu Bakr, Abdel (1981). "Pharoanic Egypt". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing.
  78. ^ Abu Bakr, Abdel (1981). "Pharoanic Egypt". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing.
  79. ISBN 978-0-88414-318-5
    .
  80. ^ Abu Bakr, Abdel (1981). "Pharoanic Egypt". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing.
  81. ^ Riad, Henry (1981). "Egypt in the Hellenistic era". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing.
  82. ^ "We have finally found the land of Punt, where pharaohs got their gifts". New Scientist. 2022-12-14. Retrieved 2023-10-28.
  83. ISBN 978-0313378577
    .
  84. ISBN 978-1448847976
    .
  85. ^ Pankhurst, Richard K.P. Addis Tribune, "Let's Look Across the Red Sea I", January 17, 2003 (archive.org mirror copy)
  86. ^ Eric Herbert Warmington, The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India, p. 187.
  87. ISBN 0-7486-0106-6
  88. S2CID 3942233
    .
  89. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert. Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C. p. 175.
  90. ISBN 0748601066
    .
  91. ^ Warmington, Brian (1981). "The Carthaginian Period". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing.
  92. ^ Warmington, Brian (1981). "The Carthaginian Period". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing.
  93. ^ Warmington, Brian (1981). "The Carthaginian Period". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing.
  94. ^ Warmington, Brian (1981). "The Carthaginian Period". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing.
  95. ^ Warmington, Brian (1981). "The Carthaginian Period". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing.
  96. ^ Mahjoubi, Ammar; Salama, Pierre (1981). "The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing.
  97. ^ Mahjoubi, Ammar; Salama, Pierre (1981). "The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing.
  98. ^ Duncan E. Miller and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Early Metal Working in Sub Saharan Africa' Journal of African History 35 (1994) 1–36; Minze Stuiver and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa' Current Anthropology 1968.
  99. ^ Collins & Burns (2007), pp. 79–80.
  100. doi:10.1016/0278-4165(85)90005-4
    .
  101. ISBN 0-415-11585-X
  102. ^ Eggert, Manfred (2014). "Early iron in West and Central Africa". In Breunig, P (ed.). Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context. Frankfurt, Germany: Africa Magna Verlag Press. pp. 51–59.
  103. ISBN 978-0557183708
    .
  104. ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4
    .
  105. ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4
    .
  106. ^ Abbou, Tahar (August 2020). "The Origins of the Empire of Ghana" (PDF). Vitaminedz.com.
  107. JSTOR 40380172
    .
  108. ^ Posnansky, Merrick (1981). "The societies of Africa south of the Sahara in the Early Iron Age". General History of Africa: Volume 2 (PDF). UNESCO. p. 729.
  109. doi:10.1016/0278-4165(85)90005-4
    .
  110. ^ "The Chronological Evidence for the Introduction of Domestic Stock in Southern Africa" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009.
  111. ^ "Botswana History Page 1: Brief History of Botswana". Retrieved 13 May 2015.
  112. ^ "5.2 Historischer Überblick". Archived from the original on 16 October 2007. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
  113. ^ Fanso 19.
  114. ^ Fanso 19; Hudgens and Trillo 1051.
  115. ^ "The Amazing Bantu Migration and the Fascinating Bantu People". www.south-africa-tours-and-travel.com. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  116. ^ Buchanan, Carole (1974). The Kitara Complex: The Historical Tradition of Western Uganda to the 16th century. Indiana University.
  117. doi:10.1007/BF01953040
    .
  118. ^ Dlamini, Nonhlanhla (2014). The early inhabitants of the Upemba depression, the Democratic Republic of Congo (Thesis). University of Cape Town.
  119. JSTOR 3888249
    .
  120. ^ JournalInsert Hilton, John (1993-10). "Peoples of Azania". Electronic Antiquity: Communicating the Classics. 1 (5). ISSN 1320-3606. Check date values in: |date= (help).
  121. ISBN 978-1317797272
    . Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  122. ^ Sheriff, Abdul (1981). "The East African coast and its role in maritime trade". General History of Africa: Volume 2 (PDF). UNESCO. p. 555.
  123. ^ 'The archaeological evidence for the earliest human presence in Madagascar comes from Andavakoera near Diego Suarez and is dated to AD420 (AD250-590, 2SDs) (Dewar & Wright 1996).
  124. ISBN 978-0-521-76638-8
    .
  125. ^ al-Fasi, Muhammad; Hrbek, Ivan (1988). "Stages in the development of Islam and its dissemination in Africa". General History of Africa: Volume 3. UNESCO.
  126. ^ al-Fasi, Muhammad; Hrbek, Ivan (1988). "The coming of Islam and the expansion of the Muslim empire". General History of Africa: Volume 3. UNESCO.
  127. ^ Talbi, Mohamed (1988). "The independence of the Maghrib". General History of Africa: Volume 3. UNESCO.
  128. ^ al-Fasi, Muhammad; Hrbek, Ivan (1988). "The coming of Islam and the expansion of the Muslim empire". General History of Africa: Volume 3. UNESCO.
  129. ^ al-Fasi, Muhammad; Hrbek, Ivan (1988). "The coming of Islam and the expansion of the Muslim empire". General History of Africa: Volume 3. UNESCO.
  130. ^ al-Fasi, Muhammad; Hrbek, Ivan (1988). "Stages in the development of Islam and its dissemination in Africa". General History of Africa: Volume 3. UNESCO.
  131. ^ Talbi, Mohamed (1988). "The independence of the Maghrib". General History of Africa: Volume 3. UNESCO.
  132. ^ General History of Africa: Volume 3. UNESCO. 1988.
  133. ^ Al-Mas'udi 1861–1917, v. 8: pp. 58, 61.
  134. ^ McKinney 2004, pp. 468–69.
  135. ^ Hrbek, Ivan (1988). "The emergence of the Fatimids". General History of Africa: Volume 3. UNESCO.
  136. ^ Hrbek, Ivan (1988). "The emergence of the Fatimids". General History of Africa: Volume 3. UNESCO.
  137. ^ Hrbek, Ivan (1988). "The emergence of the Fatimids". General History of Africa: Volume 3. UNESCO.
  138. ^ Hrbek, Ivan; Devisse, Jean (1988). "The Almoravids". General History of Africa: Volume 3. UNESCO.
  139. ^ Bianquis, Thierry (1988). "Egypt from the Arab conquest until the end of the Fatimid state (1171)". General History of Africa: Volume 3. UNESCO.
  140. ^ Garcin, Jean-Claude (1984). "Egypt and the Muslim world". General History of Africa: Volume 4. UNESCO Publishing.
  141. ^ Saidi, O. (1984). "The unification of the Maghreb under the Alhomads". General History of Africa: Volume 4. UNESCO Publishing.
  142. ^ Garcin, Jean-Claude (1984). "Egypt and the Muslim world". General History of Africa: Volume 4. UNESCO Publishing.
  143. ^ Hrbek, Ivan (1984). "The disintegration of the political unity of the Maghreb". General History of Africa: Volume 4. UNESCO Publishing.
  144. ^ Collins & Burns (2007), pp. 268–269.
  145. ^ Collins & Burns (2007), p. 269.
  146. ^ Collins & Burns (2007), p. 265.
  147. ^ Alistair Horne, A savage war of peace: Algeria 1954–1962 (1977).
  148. ^ David Anderson, Histories of the hanged: The dirty war in Kenya and the end of empire (2005).
  149. ^ Gabriel Almond and James S. Coleman, The Politics of the Developing Areas (1971)
  150. ^ Festus Ugboaja Ohaegbulam, Nationalism in colonial and post-colonial Africa (University Press of America, 1977).
  151. ^ Thomas Hodgkin, Nationalism in Colonial Africa (1956)
  152. ^ Henry S. Wilson, African decolonization (E. Arnold, 1994).
  153. JSTOR 2705705
    .
  154. ^ Prunier (2009), p. 72.
  155. ISBN 9780195374209
    . Retrieved 20 October 2014.
  156. ISBN 9780191647697
    .
  157. ^ a b Roberts, A.D. (1999). "The British Empire in Tropical Africa: A Review of the Literature to the 1960s". In Winks, Robin (ed.). Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography. Vol. 5. pp. 463–485.
  158. ^ Ronald Robinson, John Gallagher, Alice Denny. Africa and the Victorians: The Climax of Imperialism in the Dark Continent (1961)
  159. ^ www.amazon.com
  160. ISBN 978-0-19-957247-2
    – via www.oxfordhandbooks.com.
  161. ^
    S2CID 145782335
    .
  162. ^
    S2CID 144763718
    .
  163. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Merolla, Daniela. "Beyond 'two Africas' in African and Berber literary studies". Scholarly Publications Leiden University. African Studies Centre Leiden.

Bibliography

Further reading

Atlases

  • Ajayi, A.J.F. and Michael Crowder. Historical Atlas of Africa (1985); 300 color maps.
  • Fage, J.D. Atlas of African History (1978)
  • Freeman-Grenville, G.S.P. The New Atlas of African History (1991).
  • Kwamena-Poh, Michael, et al. African history in Maps (Longman, 1982).
  • McEvedy, Colin. The Penguin Atlas of African History (2nd ed. 1996). excerpt

Historiography

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Africa&oldid=1227544768"