Mughal architecture
Mughal architecture is the type of Indo-Islamic architecture developed by the Mughals in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries throughout the ever-changing extent of their empire in the Indian subcontinent. It developed from the architectural styles of earlier Muslim dynasties in India and from Iranian and Central Asian architectural traditions, particularly Timurid architecture.[3][4][5][6][7] It also further incorporated and syncretized influences from wider Indian architecture, especially during the reign of Akbar (r. 1556–1605).[3][4][6][7] Mughal buildings have a uniform pattern of structure and character, including large bulbous domes, slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large vaulted gateways, and delicate ornamentation; examples of the style can be found in modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India and Pakistan.
The Mughal dynasty was established after the victory of Babur at Panipat in 1526. During his five-year reign, Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few have survived. His grandson Akbar built widely, and the style developed vigorously during his reign. Among his accomplishments were Agra Fort, the fort-city of Fatehpur Sikri, and the Buland Darwaza. Akbar's son Jahangir commissioned the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir.
Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan, who constructed Taj Mahal, the Jama Masjid of Delhi, the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, and renovated the Lahore Fort. High-ranking officials below the emperor were also able to build major monuments, as with the example of the Wazir Khan Mosque. The last of the great Mughal patrons was Aurangzeb, who built the Badshahi Mosque, Bibi Ka Maqbara, Moti Masjid etc.
Background
Mughal emperors and elites consciously used architecture as a way to publicly display their presence and power. The extensive architectural patronage of the Mughals was made possible by their considerable wealth, which exceeded that of other contemporary Muslim empires like the
Mughal architecture was derived from three main architectural traditions: local Indo-Islamic architecture, the architecture of Islamic Persia and Central Asia, and indigenous Hindu architecture.[4] Because earlier Indo-Islamic architecture already borrowed from both Hindu and Islamic architectural styles, certain influences in Mughal architecture can be difficult to attribute to one source or the other. With regards to Hindu architecture, local Rajput palaces were likely a key influence.[4] Early Mughal architecture developed from existing Indo-Islamic architecture while following the model of Timurid architecture (based in Central Asia), due in part to the Timurid ancestry of the Mughal dynasty's founder, Babur.[3][5][6][7] By the late 16th century, a more distinctive Mughal tradition emerged based on the combination of these two sources.[7]
Under the reign of
During the reign of Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658), a "classical" Mughal style was consolidated and remained essentially in use until the end of the Mughal period.[7] A certain level of stylistic consistency was achieved throughout the empire at this period thanks to the role of a central department of architects, similar to the imperial architects that existed in the Ottoman Empire.[5]
Mughal architecture has also influenced later Indian architectural styles, including the Indo-Saracenic style of the British Raj, the Rajput style and the Sikh style.[citation needed] One scholar has also noted similarities between Mughal architecture and architectural projects within the Ethiopian Empire in the early 17th century, primarily those sponsored by Susenyos I and carried out with the help of the Jesuit missionaries that he patronized. This influence was likely due to the strong connections between the Jesuit missions in Ethiopia and Mughal India at the time. Indian craftsmen, possibly with experience in Mughal constructions, are also reported to have worked on the projects.[9]
Several mosques in Malaysia, such as the Kapitan Keling Mosque, Jamek Mosque, and Zahir Mosque, were influenced by Mughal architecture in their designs.[10] In Brunei, the Omar Ali Saifuddien Mosque also incorporates Mughal influences.[11]
Characteristics
General
Mughal architecture is distinguished by an elegant style in which careful linear divisions of spaces and surfaces took priority over the more three-dimensional combination of elements that distinguished earlier Indo-Islamic architecture.
Another distinguishing characteristic was the use of red sandstone as a building material, along with white marble. This replaced the prominence of brick in earlier Indo-Islamic architecture,[5] though construction materials still varied depending on the region.[4] Sandstone is a very hard material, but local Indian stonemasons were skilled in carving it with intricate detail, which was another distinguishing feature of the Mughal style. White marble was initially used as a cladding to compliment and finish the look of sandstone buildings, as in Humayun's Tomb, but later it was used on a grander scale to cover entire buildings, as in the Taj Mahal.[4] Brick was sometimes still used for domes and arches, but in these cases it was usually faced with plaster or stone as a finish.[4]
Decoration
Decorative motifs included geometric and floral designs, as well as elaborate inscriptions in Arabic, Persian, and even in local languages during the late Mughal period.[12] Decoration was commonly executed in tile or stone.[4]
Tilework was more commonly applied to the exterior of buildings and existed in two main types: cuerda seca and mosaic tilework. Cuerda seca tiles were decorated with coloured glazes separated by dark lines, while mosaic tilework consisted of single-coloured tile pieces that were cut and fitted together to create larger patterns.[4]
Stonework was of high quality and marks one of the most sophisticated aspects of Mughal decoration. Carved stonework included ornately-sculpted pillars and corbels, flat panels carved in low relief with depictions of flowers, and pierced marble screens known as jalis.[4] Pietra dura, known as parchin kari in the Indian subcontinent,[13] was the technique of decorating with inlaid stone. It developed in this region independently from the Italian technique that is widely known elsewhere.[4]
Influences
Elements of earlier Indo-Islamic architecture that continued in Mughal architecture are the
Features of Persian or Central Asian (Timurid) influence were the
Elements of Mughal architecture that demonstrate Hindu influences include the use of trabeate constructions, the use of corbel arches instead of arches with voussoirs, and the style of ornately-carved pillars.[4] Jharokhas (projecting balconies), chhatris (domed kiosks), and chhajjas (wide stone eaves) are also elements that were borrowed from local Hindu architecture and became very popular in Mughal architecture. Some elements, such as projecting balconies, had parallels in Islamic architecture elsewhere but their specific Mughal forms were of local inspiration.[4]
Major building types
Large fortified citadels or palace complexes, such as the Agra Fort and the Red Fort in Delhi, were enclosed in massive walls reinforced by semi-circular towers and entered via monumental gateways. Inside, the classic Mughal palace was laid out with symmetrical gardens and various pavilions. Open pavilions with rows of cusped arches were a recurring feature. Rich decoration was used to embellish rooms and halls.[4]
Gardens were a favourite concern of Mughal emperors, whether they were created as separate, dedicated garden sites or as the setting for pavilions and mausoleums within larger architectural complexes. They were laid out in a formal manner with terraces, precise divisions, and water features.[4]
Mosques were relatively more restrained in their decoration but were built on a grand scale. The typical mosque layout in the classic Mughal era involved a large rectangular courtyard surrounded by an arcade on three sides and a prayer hall on one side. The prayer hall consisted of a wide vaulted hall fronted by an arcade of monumental arches, with the central archway consisting of a larger iwan rising above the others.[4]
The most monumental and elaborate Mughal structures were royal mausoleums, deliberately designed to show off the power and sophistication of their patrons. The classic Mughal tomb was an octagonal or rectangular structure with a central dome and outer iwans, raised on a terraced platform.[4]
Other public buildings and infrastructure works included roads, milestones (known as kos minar), caravanserais (inns for merchants and travelers), and bridges. These were more functional in nature and less decorative, though some caravanserais were embellished with elaborate gateways.[4]
Monuments
This section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2022) |
Babur
In religious architecture, Babur's mosques also followed the designs of earlier Timurid mosques, with a tall central entrance portal (pishtaq), a courtyard, and a prayer hall covered by a large central dome flanked by side aisles covered by smaller domes. An example of this is his mosque at Panipat.[5][7]
Akbar
Agra Fort
Agra fort is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Agra, Uttar Pradesh. The major part of Agra fort was built by Akbar from 1565 to 1574. The architecture of the fort clearly indicates the free adoption of the Rajput planning and construction. Some of the important buildings in the fort are Jahangiri Mahal built for Jahangir and his family, the Moti Masjid, and Mena Bazaars. The Jahangiri Mahal has a courtyard surrounded by double-storeyed halls and rooms.
Humayun's Tomb
Humayun's tomb is the
Fatehpur Sikri
Akbar's greatest architectural achievement was the construction of Fatehpur Sikri, his capital city near Agra at a trade and Jain pilgrimages.[16][17][18] The construction of the walled city was started in 1569 and completed in 1574.
It contained some of the most beautiful buildings – both religious and secular which testify to the Emperor's aim of achieving social, political and religious integration. The main religious buildings were the huge
The Haramsara, the royal seraglio in Fatehpur Sikri was an area where the royal women lived. The opening to the Haramsara is from the Khwabgah side separated by a row of cloisters. According to Abul Fazl, in Ain-i-Akbari, the inside of Harem was guarded by senior and active women, outside the enclosure the eunuchs were placed, and at a proper distance there were faithful Rajput guards.[19]
Tomb of Salim Chisti
The Tomb of Salim Chishti is famed as one of the finest examples of Mughal architecture in India, built during the years 1580 and 1581. The tomb, built in 1571 in the corner of the mosque compound, is a square marble chamber with a verandah. The cenotaph has an exquisitely designed lattice screen around it. It enshrines the burial place of the Sufi saint, Salim Chisti (1478 – 1572), a descendant of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, who lived in a cavern on the ridge at Sikri. The mausoleum, constructed by Akbar as a mark of his respect for the Sufi saint, who foretold the birth of his son.
Jahangir
Begum Shahi Mosque
The
Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah
The tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah, is a mausoleum in the city of Agra in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Often described as a "jewel box", sometimes called the "Bachcha Taj", as the tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah is often regarded as a draft of the Taj Mahal.
Shah Jahan
Rather than building huge monuments like his predecessors to demonstrate their power,
Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal, a
The building's longest
Wazir Khan Mosque
The Wazir Khan Mosque was commissioned during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in 1634, and completed in 1642.[31] Considered to be the most ornately decorated Mughal-era mosque,[32] Wazir Khan Mosque is renowned for its intricate faience tile work known as kashi-kari, as well as its interior surfaces that are almost entirely embellished with elaborate Mughal-era frescoes. The mosque has been under extensive restoration since 2009 under the direction of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture and the Government of Punjab.[33]
Shalimar Gardens
It is a
Shah Jahan Mosque
The
Shahi Hammam
Aurangzeb
In Aurangzeb's reign (1658–1707) squared stone and marble was replaced by brick or rubble with stucco ornament. Srirangapatna and Lucknow have examples of later Indo-Mughal architecture. He made additions to the Lahore Fort and also built one of the thirteen gates which were later named after him (Alamgir).
Badshahi Mosque
The
Additional monuments
Additional monuments from this period are associated with women from Aurangzeb's imperial family. The construction of the elegant Zinat al-Masjid in Daryaganj was overseen by Aurangzeb's second daughter Zinat-al-Nissa. Aurangzeb's sister Roshan-Ara who died in 1671. The tomb of Roshanara Begum and the garden surrounding it were neglected for a long time and are now in an advanced state of decay.
Bibi ka Maqbara
Late Mughal
Lalbagh Fort
Lalbagh Fort (also known as "Fort Aurangabad"), a Mughal palace fortress at the Buriganga River in the southwestern part of Dhaka, Bangladesh, whose construction started in 1678 during the reign of Aurangzeb's son Azam Shah.
Sunehri Mosque
Sunehri Mosque is a late Mughal-era mosque in the Walled City of Lahore, Pakistan. Sunehri Mosque was built in 1753 when the empire was in decline, during the reign of Muhammad Shah.
Tomb of Safdar Jang
The Tomb of Safdar Jung completed in 1754 is one of the last examples of Mughal Architecture.
Gardens
The quadrilateral garden is divided by walkways or flowing water into four smaller parts. Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the walled enclosures. Some of the typical features include pools, fountains and canals inside the gardens.
Some famous examples of Mughal gardens are the
The ensemble of six Mughal Gardens of
Bridges
Gallery
-
parchin kariwork.
-
Tomb of Nithar Begum atAllahabad, India.
-
One of the Tombs of Ustad-Shagird, Nakodar, India.
-
The Darwaza-i-Rauza (Great Gate) of the Taj Mahal.
-
Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of private audience) at Lahore Fort.
-
Shah Jahan Mosque in Thatta, Pakistan. The mosque is not built in the Mughal style, but reflects a heavy Persian influence.
See also
References
- ^ a b "Taj Mahal World Heritage". UNESCO World Heritage. Centre. Archived from the original on 1 February 2018. Retrieved 31 December 2018.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-135-45596-5.
- ^ a b c d Asher 1992, pp. 1–2.
- ^ ISBN 9781134613663.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bloom & Blair 2009, Architecture; VII. c. 1500–c. 1900; D. India.
- ^ ISBN 9783848003808.
- ^ ISSN 1873-9830.
- ^ a b c Bloom & Blair 2009, Mughal.
- ^ Martínez d'Alòs-Moner 2017, pp. 30–33.
- ^ Md Saaid, Ahmad Sid Hijaz; Sanusi Hassan, Ahmad (2019). "The influence of Mughal architecture on Masjid Zahir: case study on five rural mosques in Kedah, Malaysia" (PDF). International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. 10 (12). Kedah, Malaysia: 2–3. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
Ali and Hassan (2017) have conducted studies on the elements of Mughal architecture found in Malaysia through case studies in three mosques namely, Masjid Kapitan Keling in Georgetown, Penang, Masjid Alwi in Perlis and Masjid Jamek in Kuala Lumpur. This study had also compared the original elements found in India such as the Jami Mosque of Delhi and Taj Mahal in Agra. The researchers believed this study was not completed because the Mughal architectural elements recorded in the local context did not include the Masjid Zahir. A study by Ibrahim and Abdullah
- ^ Rui Oliveira Lopes; Nuriskandar bin Mohd Hasnan (2021). "The Expression of Cultural Identity in Mosque Architecture in Brunei Darussalam". Trans -Regional and -National Studies of Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press: 8. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
...Despite the evident Mughal-style architecture, fortress-like body, and minarets....
- ISBN 978-90-04-16339-3.
- ISBN 978-1-119-06857-0.
- ^ Research & Teaching Aptitude Paper-I
- ^ "Mughal ruins in Dholpur: Where Babur sowed the seed".
- ^ Fatehpur Sikri was once a Jain pilgrimage centre: Book. 27 February 2013.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ "Excavation at Akbars fort at Fatehpur Sikri reveals flourishing Jain and Hindu habitation". Retrieved 15 December 2017.
- ^ "Fatehpur Sikri was once a Jain pilgrimage centre: Book". hindustantimes.com/. 27 February 2013. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
- ^ Gupta, Fathepur Sikri:Akbar's Magnificent City on a Hill, pp. 146.
- ^ a b c Khan, Ahmad Nabi (1970). Pakistan archaeology no.7. pp. 121–122, 126.
- ^ Koch, Ebba (1990). Mughal architecture. p. 83.
- ISBN 978-1-86189-185-3.
- ^ a b Wheeler, R. E. M. (1950). Five thousand years of Pakistan. p. 83.
- ^ a b Asher 1992, p. 116-117.
- ^ "The mosque that Jodha Bai built". Daily Times. 26 June 2004. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
- ISBN 978-0786429042. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
- ^ Indian Journal of History of Science, Volume 44, Issues 1-3. National Institute of Sciences of India. 2009.
- ^ The Sikh Courier:Volumes 9-12. Sikh Cultural Society of Great Britain. 1977. p. 16.
Nadir-ul-Asar Ahmad Mimar Lahori Shahjehani was also a Punjabi who designed the Taj Mahal of Agra
- ^ History and Civis. S. Chand Publishing. p. 226.
- ISBN 9788185263823.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ "Conservation of the Wazir Khan Mosque Lahore: Preliminary Report on Condition and Risk Assessment" (PDF). Aga Khan Development Network. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 August 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
The Wazir Khan Mosque was built in 1634-35 AD (1044-45 AH), by Hakim 'Ali ud din* a governor of Punjab in the early part of the reign of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan.
- ISBN 9789231038761.
- ^ "Walled city of Lahore conservation". Retrieved 25 August 2016.
The Walled city of Lahore is famous for several historic monuments including the Lahore Fort – a World Heritage site, the Badshahi, and Wazir Khan mosques. Close to 2,000 buildings within the Walled city display a range of architectural features that mark Lahore's centuries-old cultural landscape. A majority of these buildings and the mohallas (local neighbourhoods) in which they are situated form a unique heritage footprint. The work consequently carried out by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture (A.K.T.C.) and the Aga Khan Historic Cities Programme (AKHCP) was initiated under a 2007 public-private partnership framework agreement with the Government of Punjab.
- ^ a b "Fort and Shalimar Gardens in Lahore". UNESCO. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
- JSTOR 27821596.
- ^ Shalamar Gardens Gardens of the Mughal Empire. Retrieved 20 June 2012
- ^ ISBN 9780520279070. Retrieved 16 July 2017.
- ^ "Shah Jahan Mosque, Thatta". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 31 December 2018.
- ^ Asher 1992, p. [page needed].
- ^ Asher 1992, p. 225.
- ISBN 9004179313p 170
- ^ "Masjid Vazir K̲h̲ān". Archnet. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
The mosque was founded by Hakim Ilmud Din Ansari, a distinguished physician from Chiniot who received the Ministerial title of 'Wazir Khan' under the reign of Shah Jahan, and was later promoted to the position of Viceroy of Punjab.
- ^ "History and Background in Conservation of the Wazir Khan Mosque Lahore: Preliminary Report on Condition and Risk Assessment". Aga Khan Historic Cities Programme. Aga Khan Cultural Services - Pakistan. 2012. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
The spectacular monumental ensemble of the Wazir Khan Mosque in the Walled City of Lahore was built in 1634 during the reign of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan.
- ^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Badshahi Mosque, Lahore – UNESCO World Heritage Centre". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2 January 2014.
- JSTOR 27821596.
Sources
- Asher, Catherine Blanshard (1992). Architecture of Mughal India. The New Cambridge History of India, Part I. Vol. 4. ISBN 9780521267281. Retrieved 16 July 2017.
- Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila (2009). The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
- George Michell, Amit Pasricha (2011). Mughal Architecture & Gardens. Antique Collectors' Club. ISBN 9781851496709.
- Gupta, Subhadra Sen; Irani, Prakash (2013). Fathepur Sikri: Akbar's Magnificent City on a Hill. Niyogi Books. ISBN 9789381523728.
- Martínez d'Alòs-Moner, Andreu (2017). "The Infrastructure of the Mission: Convents, Palaces, and Temples". In Andreu Martínez d’Alòs-Moner, Victor; De Torres, Jorge; Martínez d'Alòs-Moner, Andreu; Cañete, Carlos (eds.). The Archaeology of the Jesuit Missions in Ethiopia (1557–1632). Brill. ISBN 9789004324695.