Information Age
Third Industrial Revolution | |||
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1947–Present | |||
Location | |||
Key events | transistor computer microminiaturization Internet | ||
Chronology
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Part of a series on |
Human history |
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↑ Prehistory (Stone Age) (Pleistocene epoch) |
↓ Future |
The Information Age (also known as the Third Industrial Revolution, Computer Age, Digital Age, Silicon Age, New Media Age, Internet Age, or the Digital Revolution
According to the
Many debate if or when the Third Industrial Revolution ended and the Fourth Industrial Revolution began, ranging from 2000 to 2020.[citation needed]
History
The digital revolution converted technology from analog format to digital format. By doing this, it became possible to make copies that were identical to the original. In digital communications, for example, repeating hardware was able to amplify the digital signal and pass it on with no loss of information in the signal. Of equal importance to the revolution was the ability to easily move the digital information between media, and to access or distribute it remotely.
The turning point of the revolution was the change from analogue to digitally recorded music.
1947–1969: Origins
In 1947, the first working
Other important technological developments included the invention of the monolithic
In 1962 AT&T deployed the T-carrier for long-haul pulse-code modulation (PCM) digital voice transmission. The T1 format carried 24 pulse-code modulated, time-division multiplexed speech signals each encoded in 64 kbit/s streams, leaving 8 kbit/s of framing information which facilitated the synchronization and demultiplexing at the receiver. Over the subsequent decades the digitisation of voice became the norm for all but the last mile (where analogue continued to be the norm right into the late 1990s).
Following the development of
MOS technology also led to the development of semiconductor
1969–1989: Invention of the internet, rise of home computers
The public was first introduced to the concepts that led to the
The Whole Earth movement of the 1960s advocated the use of new technology.[18]
In the 1970s, the home computer was introduced,[19] time-sharing computers,[20] the video game console, the first coin-op video games,[21][22] and the golden age of arcade video games began with Space Invaders. As digital technology proliferated, and the switch from analog to digital record keeping became the new standard in business, a relatively new job description was popularized, the data entry clerk. Culled from the ranks of secretaries and typists from earlier decades, the data entry clerk's job was to convert analog data (customer records, invoices, etc.) into digital data.
In developed nations, computers achieved semi-ubiquity during the 1980s as they made their way into schools, homes, business, and industry.
In 1984, the U.S. Census Bureau began collecting data on computer and Internet use in the United States; their first survey showed that 8.2% of all U.S. households owned a personal computer in 1984, and that households with children under the age of 18 were nearly twice as likely to own one at 15.3% (middle and upper middle class households were the most likely to own one, at 22.9%).[24] By 1989, 15% of all U.S. households owned a computer, and nearly 30% of households with children under the age of 18 owned one.[citation needed] By the late 1980s, many businesses were dependent on computers and digital technology.
Motorola created the first mobile phone,
Compute! magazine predicted that CD-ROM would be the centerpiece of the revolution, with multiple household devices reading the discs.[25]
The first true digital camera was created in 1988, and the first were marketed in December 1989 in Japan and in 1990 in the United States.[26] By the mid-2000s, digital cameras had eclipsed traditional film in popularity.
1989–2005: Invention of the World Wide Web, mainstreaming of the Internet, Web 1.0
Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989.[27]
The first public digital
The
In 1989, about 15% of all households in the United States owned a personal computer.[32] For households with children, nearly 30% owned a computer in 1989, and in 2000, 65% owned one.
The digital revolution became truly global in this time as well - after revolutionizing society in the
By 2000, a majority of U.S. households had at least one personal computer and internet access the following year.[33] In 2002, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported having a mobile phone.[34]
2005–2020: Web 2.0, social media, smartphones, digital TV
In late 2005 the population of the
Rise in digital technology use of computers
In the late 1980s, less than 1% of the world's technologically stored information was in digital format, while it was 94% in 2007, with more than 99% by 2014.[44]
It is estimated that the world's capacity to store information has increased from 2.6 (optimally compressed)
1990
- Cell phone subscribers: 12.5 million (0.25% of world population in 1990)[46]
- Internet users: 2.8 million (0.05% of world population in 1990)[47]
2000
- Cell phone subscribers: 1.5 billion (19% of world population in 2002)[47]
- Internet users: 631 million (11% of world population in 2002)[47]
2010
- Cell phone subscribers: 4 billion (68% of world population in 2010)[48]
- Internet users: 1.8 billion (26.6% of world population in 2010)[42]
2020
- Cell phone subscribers: 4.78 billion (62% of world population in 2020)[49]
- Internet users: 4.54 billion (59% of world population in 2020)[50]
Overview of early developments
Library expansion and Moore's law
Library expansion was calculated in 1945 by Fremont Rider to double in capacity every 16 years where sufficient space made available.[51] He advocated replacing bulky, decaying printed works with miniaturized microform analog photographs, which could be duplicated on-demand for library patrons and other institutions.
Rider did not foresee, however, the
By the early 1980s, along with improvements in
Information storage and Kryder's law
The world's technological capacity to store information grew from 2.6 (optimally
The amount of
Information transmission
The world's technological capacity to receive information through one-way
The world's effective capacity to
Computation
The world's technological capacity to compute information with human-guided general-purpose computers grew from 3.0 × 108
general-purpose computerswere capable of performing well over 10^18 instructions per second. Estimates suggest that the storage capacity of an individual human brain is about 10^12 bytes. On a per capita basis, this is matched by current digital storage (5x10^21 bytes per 7.2x10^9 people).
Genetic information
Genetic code may also be considered part of the
Different stage conceptualizations
This section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2024) |
During rare times in human history, there have been periods of innovation that have transformed human life. The Neolithic Age, the Scientific Age and the Industrial Age all, ultimately, induced discontinuous and irreversible changes in the economic, social and cultural elements of the daily life of most people. Traditionally, these epochs have taken place over hundreds, or in the case of the Neolithic Revolution, thousands of years, whereas the Information Age swept to all parts of the globe in just a few years, as a result of the rapidly advancing speed of information exchange.
Between 7,000 and 10,000 years ago during the Neolithic period, humans began to domesticate animals, began to farm grains and to replace stone tools with ones made of metal. These innovations allowed nomadic hunter-gatherers to settle down. Villages formed along the
and China around 1,450 B.C.) enabled ideas to be preserved for extended periods to spread extensively. In all, Neolithic developments, augmented by writing as an information tool, laid the groundwork for the advent of civilization.The Scientific Age began in the period between Galileo's 1543 proof that the planets orbit the Sun and Newton's publication of the laws of motion and gravity in Principia in 1697. This age of discovery continued through the 18th century, accelerated by widespread use of the moveable type printing press by Johannes Gutenberg.
The Industrial Age began in Great Britain in 1760 and continued into the mid-19th century. The invention of machines such as the mechanical textile weaver by Edmund Cartwrite, the rotating shaft steam engine by James Watt and the cotton gin by Eli Whitney, along with processes for mass manufacturing, came to serve the needs of a growing global population. The Industrial Age harnessed steam and waterpower to reduce the dependence on animal and human physical labor as the primary means of production. Thus, the core of the Industrial Revolution was the generation and distribution of energy from coal and water to produce steam and, later in the 20th century, electricity.
The Information Age also requires electricity to power the global networks of computers that process and store data. However, what dramatically accelerated the pace of The Information Age’s adoption, as compared to previous ones, was the speed by which knowledge could be transferred and pervaded the entire human family in a few short decades. This acceleration came about with the adoptions of a new form of power. Beginning in 1972, engineers devised ways to harness light to convey data through fiber optic cable. Today, light-based optical networking systems at the heart of telecom networks and the Internet span the globe and carry most of the information traffic to and from users and data storage systems.
Others classify it in terms of the well-established
Information in social and economic activities
The main feature of the information revolution is the growing economic, social and technological role of
Information is the central theme of several new sciences, which emerged in the 1940s, including
The theory of information revolution
The term information revolution may relate to, or contrast with, such widely used terms as Industrial Revolution and Agricultural Revolution. Note, however, that you may prefer mentalist to materialist paradigm. The following fundamental aspects of the theory of information revolution can be given:[68][69]
- The object of economic activities can be conceptualized according to the fundamental distinction between matter, energy, and information. These apply both to the object of each economic activity, as well as within each economic activity or enterprise. For instance, an industry may process matter (e.g. iron) using energy and information (production and process technologies, management, etc.).
- Information is a labor, land (economics)), as well as a product sold in the market, that is, a commodity. As such, it acquires use value and exchange value, and therefore a price.
- All products have use value, exchange value, and informational value. The latter can be measured by the information content of the product, in terms of innovation, design, etc.
- Industries develop information-generating activities, the so-called R&D) functions.
- Enterprises, and society at large, develop the information control and processing functions, in the form of management structures; these are also called "white-collar workers", "bureaucracy", "managerial functions", etc.
- Labor can be classified according to the object of labor, into information labor and non-information labor.
- Information activities constitute a large, new economic sector, the information sector along with the traditional quinary sector of the economyattempt to classify these new activities, but their definitions are not based on a clear conceptual scheme, although the latter is considered by some as equivalent with the information sector.
- From a strategic point of view, sectors can be defined as information sector,
- Innovations are the result of the production of new information, as new products, new methods of production, business cycles". There are various types of waves, such as Kondratiev wave (54 years), Kuznets swing (18 years), Juglar cycle (9 years) and Kitchin (about 4 years, see also Joseph Schumpeter) distinguished by their nature, duration, and, thus, economic impact.
- Diffusion of innovations causes structural-sectoral shifts in the economy, which can be smooth or can create crisis and renewal, a process which Joseph Schumpeter called vividly "creative destruction".
From a different perspective, Irving E. Fang (1997) identified six 'Information Revolutions': writing, printing, mass media, entertainment, the 'tool shed' (which we call 'home' now), and the information highway. In this work the term 'information revolution' is used in a narrow sense, to describe trends in communication media.[73]
Measuring and modeling the information revolution
Porat (1976) measured the information sector in the US using the
These works can be seen as following the path originated with the work of Fritz Machlup who in his (1962) book "The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States", claimed that the "knowledge industry represented 29% of the US gross national product", which he saw as evidence that the Information Age had begun. He defines knowledge as a commodity and attempts to measure the magnitude of the production and distribution of this commodity within a modern economy. Machlup divided information use into three classes: instrumental, intellectual, and pastime knowledge. He identified also five types of knowledge: practical knowledge; intellectual knowledge, that is, general culture and the satisfying of intellectual curiosity; pastime knowledge, that is, knowledge satisfying non-intellectual curiosity or the desire for light entertainment and emotional stimulation; spiritual or religious knowledge; unwanted knowledge, accidentally acquired and aimlessly retained.[75]
More recent estimates have reached the following results:[44]
- the world's technological capacity to receive information through one-way broadcastnetworks grew at a sustained compound annual growth rate of 7% between 1986 and 2007;
- the world's technological capacity to store information grew at a sustained compound annual growth rate of 25% between 1986 and 2007;
- the world's effective capacity to exchange information through two-way telecommunicationnetworks grew at a sustained compound annual growth rate of 30% during the same two decades;
- the world's technological capacity to compute information with the help of humanly guided general-purpose computers grew at a sustained compound annual growth rate of 61% during the same period.[76]
Economics
Eventually, Information and communication technology (ICT)—i.e. computers, computerized machinery, fiber optics, communication satellites, the Internet, and other ICT tools—became a significant part of the world economy, as the development of optical networking and microcomputers greatly changed many businesses and industries.[77][78] Nicholas Negroponte captured the essence of these changes in his 1995 book, Being Digital, in which he discusses the similarities and differences between products made of atoms and products made of bits.[79]
Jobs and income distribution
The Information Age has affected the
Along with automation, jobs traditionally associated with the
In effectuating a globalized workforce, the internet has just as well allowed for increased opportunity in developing countries, making it possible for workers in such places to provide in-person services, therefore competing directly with their counterparts in other nations. This competitive advantage translates into increased opportunities and higher wages.[82]
Automation, productivity, and job gain
The Information Age has affected the workforce in that
Information-intensive industry
Industry has become more information-intensive while less labor- and capital-intensive. This has left important implications for the workforce, as workers have become increasingly productive as the value of their labor decreases. For the system of capitalism itself, the value of labor decreases, the value of capital increases.
In the classical model, investments in human and financial capital are important predictors of the performance of a new venture.[86] However, as demonstrated by Mark Zuckerberg and Facebook, it now seems possible for a group of relatively inexperienced people with limited capital to succeed on a large scale.[87]
Innovations
The Information Age was enabled by technology developed in the
Transistors
The onset of the Information Age can be associated with the development of
Computers
Before the advent of
The invention of the transistor enabled the era of mainframe computers (1950s–1970s), typified by the IBM 360. These large, room-sized computers provided data calculation and manipulation that was much faster than humanly possible, but were expensive to buy and maintain, so were initially limited to a few scientific institutions, large corporations, and government agencies.
The
The first commercial single-chip microprocessor launched in 1971, the
Along with electronic
.Data
The first developments for storing data were initially based on photographs, starting with microphotography in 1851 and then microform in the 1920s, with the ability to store documents on film, making them much more compact. Early information theory and Hamming codes were developed about 1950, but awaited technical innovations in data transmission and storage to be put to full use.
Copper wire cables transmitting digital data connected
Electronic paper, which has origins in the 1970s, allows digital information to appear as paper documents.
Personal computers
By 1976, there were several firms racing to introduce the first truly successful commercial personal computers. Three machines, the Apple II, Commodore PET 2001 and TRS-80 were all released in 1977,[108] becoming the most popular by late 1978.[109] Byte magazine later referred to Commodore, Apple, and Tandy as the "1977 Trinity".[110] Also in 1977, Sord Computer Corporation released the Sord M200 Smart Home Computer in Japan.[111]
Apple II
Steve Wozniak (known as "Woz"), a regular visitor to Homebrew Computer Club meetings, designed the single-board Apple I computer and first demonstrated it there. With specifications in hand and an order for 100 machines at US$500 each from the Byte Shop, Woz and his friend Steve Jobs founded Apple Computer.
About 200 of the machines sold before the company announced the Apple II as a complete computer. It had color graphics, a full QWERTY keyboard, and internal slots for expansion, which were mounted in a high quality streamlined plastic case. The monitor and I/O devices were sold separately. The original Apple II operating system was only the built-in BASIC interpreter contained in ROM. Apple DOS was added to support the diskette drive; the last version was "Apple DOS 3.3".
Its higher price and lack of
Despite slow initial sales, the lifetime of the
Optical networking
The two core technologies are the optical fiber and light amplification (the
Economy, society and culture
Manuel Castells captures the significance of the Information Age in The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture when he writes of our global interdependence and the new relationships between economy, state and society, what he calls "a new society-in-the-making." He cautions that just because humans have dominated the material world, does not mean that the Information Age is the end of history:
"It is in fact, quite the opposite: history is just beginning, if by history we understand the moment when, after millennia of a prehistoric battle with Nature, first to survive, then to conquer it, our species has reached the level of knowledge and social organization that will allow us to live in a predominantly social world. It is the beginning of a new existence, and indeed the beginning of a new age, The Information Age, marked by the autonomy of culture vis-à-vis the material basis of our existence."[117]
Thomas Chatterton Williams wrote about the dangers of anti-intellectualism in the Information Age in a piece for The Atlantic. Although access to information has never been greater, most information is irrelevant or insubstantial. The Information Age's emphasis on speed over expertise contributes to "superficial culture in which even the elite will openly disparage as pointless our main repositories for the very best that has been thought."[118]
See also
- Technological revolutions
- First Industrial Revolution
- Second Industrial Revolution
- Fourth Industrial Revolution
- Attention economy
- Attention inequality
- Big data
- Cognitive-cultural economy
- Cybercrime
- Cyberterrorism
- Cyberwarfare
- Democratization of knowledge
- Digital dark age
- Digital detox
- Digital divide
- Digital transformation
- Imagination age
- Indigo Era
- Information explosion
- Information society
- Internet governance
- Netizen
- Netocracy
- Network society
- Social Age
- Space Age
- Technological determinism
- Telecommunications
- Zettabyte Era
- The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age
- Information and communication technologies for environmental sustainability
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Further reading
- Oliver Stengel et al. (2017). Digitalzeitalter - Digitalgesellschaft, Springer ISBN 978-3658117580
- Mendelson, Edward (June 2016). In the Depths of the Digital Age, The New York Review of Books
- Bollacker, Kurt D. (2010) Avoiding a Digital Dark Age, American Scientist, March–April 2010, Volume 98, Number 2, p. 106ff
- Castells, Manuel. (1996–98). The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture, 3 vols. Oxford: Blackwell.
- Gelbstein, E. (2006) Crossing the Executive Digital Divide. ISBN 99932-53-17-0
External links
- Articles on the impact of the Information Age on business – at Information Age magazine
- Beyond the Information Age by Dave Ulmer
- Information Age Anthology Vol I by Alberts and Papp (CCRP, 1997) (PDF)
- Information Age Anthology Vol II by Alberts and Papp (CCRP, 2000) (PDF)
- Information Age Anthology Vol III by Alberts and Papp (CCRP, 2001) (PDF)
- Understanding Information Age Warfare by Alberts et al. (CCRP, 2001) (PDF)
- Information Age Transformation by Alberts (CCRP, 2002) (PDF)
- The Unintended Consequences of Information Age Technologies by Alberts (CCRP, 1996) (PDF)
- History & Discussion of the Information Age
- Science Museum – Information Age Archived 2015-10-04 at the Wayback Machine