Social media

Social media are interactive technologies that facilitate the

• Online platforms that enable users to create and share content and participate in social networking.[2]^[3][4]
• online interactions.^[2][3]
• Service-specific profiles that are designed and maintained by the social media organization.^[2][5]
• Social media helps the development of online social networks by connecting a user's profile with those of other individuals or groups.^[2][5]

The term social in regard to media suggests platforms enable communal activity. Social media can enhance and extend human networks.^[6] Users access social media through web-based apps or custom apps on mobile devices. These interactive platforms allow individuals, communities, and organizations to share, co-create, discuss, participate in, and modify user-generated or self-curated content.^[7][5][1] Social media are used to document memories, learn, and form friendships.^[8] They may be used to promote people, companies, products, and ideas.^[8] Social media can be used to consume, publish, or share news.

Popular social media platforms with more than 100 million registered users include X, Facebook, WeChat, ShareChat, Instagram, Pinterest, QZone, Weibo, VK, Tumblr, Baidu Tieba, and LinkedIn. Depending on interpretation, other popular platforms that are sometimes referred to as social media services include YouTube, Letterboxd, QQ, Quora, Telegram, WhatsApp, Signal, LINE, Snapchat, Pinterest, Viber, Reddit, Discord, TikTok, Microsoft Teams. Wikis are examples of collaborative content creation.

Social media outlets differ from old media (e.g. newspapers, TV, and radio broadcasting) in many ways, including quality,^[9] reach, frequency, usability, relevancy, and permanence.^[10] Social media outlets operate in a dialogic transmission system (many sources to many receivers) while traditional media operate under a monologic transmission model (one source to many receivers). For instance, a newspaper is delivered to many subscribers, and a radio station broadcasts the same programs to a city.^[11]

Observers have noted a range of positive and negative impacts from social media. Social media can help to improve an individual's sense of connectedness with others and be an effective communication (or marketing) tool for corporations, entrepreneurs, non-profit organizations, advocacy groups, political parties, and governments. Social movements use social media for communicating and organizing. Social media has been criticized for a range of negative impacts on children and teenagers, including exposure to inappropriate content, exploitation by adults, sleep problems, attention problems, feelings of exclusion, and various mental health maladies.^[12][13]

History

Early computing

The

A precursor of the electronic

In 1991, Tim Berners-Lee integrated HTML hypertext software with the Internet, creating the World Wide Web. This breakthrough led to an explosion of blogs, list servers, and email services. Message forums migrated to the web, and evolved into Internet forums, supported by cheaper access as well as the ability to handle far more people simultaneously.

These early text-based systems expanded to include images and video in the 21st century, aided by

The evolution of online services progressed from serving as channels for networked communication to becoming interactive platforms for networked social interaction with the advent of Web 2.0.^[6]

Social media started in the mid-1990s with the invention of platforms like GeoCities, Classmates.com, and SixDegrees.com.^[18] While instant messaging and chat clients existed at the time, SixDegrees was unique as it was the first online service designed for people to connect using their actual names instead of anonymously. It boasted features like profiles, friends lists, and school affiliations, making it "the very first social networking site".^[18][19] The platform's name was inspired by the "six degrees of separation" concept, which suggests that every person on the planet is just six connections away from everyone else.^[20]

In the early 2000s, social media platforms gained widespread popularity with the likes of Friendster and Myspace, followed by Facebook, YouTube, and X.^[21]

Research from 2015 reported that globally, users spent 22% of their online time on social networks,^[22] likely fueled by the availability of smartphones.^[23] As of 2023 as many as 4.76 billion people used social media^[24] some 59% of the global population.

Definition

A 2015 review identified four features unique to social media services:^[2]

• Web 2.0 Internet-based applications.^[2][3]
• User-generated content^[2][3]
• User-created self profiles^[2][5]
• Social networks formed by connections between profiles,^[2][5] such as followers, groups, and lists.

In 2019, Merriam-Webster defined social media as "forms of electronic communication (such as websites for social networking and microblogging) through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content (such as videos)."^[25]

Services

Social media encompasses an expanding suite of services:^[26]

• Blogs (ex. HuffPost, Boing Boing)
• Business networks (ex. LinkedIn, XING)
• Collaborative projects (Mozilla, GitHub)
• Yammer, Socialcast, Slack
  )
• Forums (Gaia Online, IGN)
• Microblogs (X, Tumblr, Weibo)
• Photo sharing (Pinterest, Flickr, Photobucket)
• Products/services review (Amazon, Upwork)
• Social bookmarking (Delicious, Pinterest)
• Social gaming (Mafia Wars, World of Warcraft)
• Social network (Facebook, Instagram, Baidu Tieba, VK, QZone, ShareChat, WeChat)
• Video sharing (YouTube, Vimeo)
• Virtual worlds (Second Life, Twinity)

Some services offer more than one type of service.^[5]

Mobile social media

Mobile social media refers to the use of social media on mobile devices such as phones and tablets. It is distinguished by its ubiquity, since users no longer have to be at desk in order to participate on a computer. Mobile services can further make use of the user's immediate location to offer information, connections, or services relevant to that location.

According to Andreas Kaplan, mobile social media activities fall among four types:^[27]

• Space-timers (location and time-sensitive): Exchange of messages with relevance for a specific location at a specific point in time (posting about a traffic jam)
• Space-locators (only location sensitive): Posts/messages with relevance for a specific location, read later by others (e.g. a restaurant review)
• Quick-timers (only time sensitive): Transfer of traditional social media
  mobile apps
  to increase immediacy (e.g. posting status updates)
• Slow-timers (neither location nor time sensitive): Transfer of traditional social media applications to mobile devices (e.g. watching a video)

Elements and function

Virality

Certain content has the potential to spread virally, an analogy for the way viral infections spread contagiously from individual to individual. One user spreads a post across their network, which leads those users to follow suit. A post from a relatively unknown user can reach vast numbers of people within hours. Virality is not guaranteed; few posts make the transition.

Viral marketing campaigns are particularly attractive to businesses because they can achieve widespread advertising coverage at a fraction of the cost of traditional marketing campaigns. Nonprofit organizations and activists may also attempt to spread content virally.

Social media sites provide specific functionality to help users re-share content, such as X's and Facebook's "like" option.^[28]

Bots

Bots are automated programs that operate on the internet.^[29] They automate many communication tasks. This has led to the creation of an industry of bot providers.^[30]

'Cyborgs'—either bot-assisted humans or human-assisted bots^[35]—are used for both legitimate and illegitimate purposes, from spreading fake news to creating marketing buzz.^[36][37][38] A common use claimed to be legitimate includes posting at a specific time.^[39] A human writes a post content and the bot posts it a specific time. In other cases, cyborgs spread fake news.^[35] Cyborgs may work as sock puppets, where one human pretends to be someone else, or operates multiple accounts, each pretending to be a person.

Patents

A multitude of United States patents are related to social media, growing rapidly.^{[citation needed]} As of 2020^[update], over 5000 social media patent applications had been published in the United States.^[40] Only slightly over 100 patents had been issued.^[41]

Platform convergence

As an instance of technological convergence, various social media platforms adapted functionality beyond their original scope, increasingly overlapping with each other.

Examples are the social hub site

X, whose original scope was text-based microblogging, later adopted photo sharing,[46] then video sharing,^[47][48] then a media studio for business users, after YouTube's Creator Studio.^[49]

The discussion platform Reddit added an integrated image hoster replacing the external image sharing platform Imgur,^[50] and then an internal video hosting service,^[51] followed by image galleries (multiple images in a single post), known from Imgur.^[52] Imgur implemented video sharing.^[53][54]

YouTube rolled out a Community feature, for sharing text-only posts and polls.^[55]

Usage statistics

According to Statista, it is estimated that, in 2022, around 3.96 billion people were using social media globally. This number is up from 3.6 billion in 2020.^[56]

The following is a list of the most popular social networking services based on the number of active users as of January 2024^[update] per Statista.^[57]

Usage: before the pandemic

A 2009 study suggested that individual differences may help explain who uses social media:

Common Sense Media reported that children under age 13 in the United States use social networking services despite the fact that many social media sites require users to be 13 or older.^[61] In 2017, the firm conducted a survey of parents of children from birth to age 8 and reported that 4% of children at this age used social media sites such as Instagram, Snapchat, or (now-defunct) Musical.ly "often" or "sometimes".^[62] Their 2019 survey surveyed Americans ages 8–16 and reported that about 31% of children ages 8–12 use social media.^[63] In that survey, teens aged 16–18 were asked when they started using social media. the median age was 14, although 28% said they started to use it before reaching 13.

Usage: during the pandemic

Usage by minors

Social media played a role in communication during the COVID-19 pandemic.^[64] In June 2020, a survey by Cartoon Network and the Cyberbullying Research Center surveyed Americans tweens (ages 9–12) and reported that the most popular application was YouTube (67%).^[65] (as age increased, tweens were more likely to have used social media apps and games.) Similarly, Common Sense Media's 2020 survey of Americans ages 13–18 reported that YouTube was the most popular (used by 86% of 13- to 18-year-olds).^[66] As children aged, they increasingly utilized social media services and often used YouTube to consume content.

Reasons for use by adults

While adults were using social media before the

Use by organizations

Government

Governments may use social media to (for example):^[72]

• inform their opinions to public
• interact with citizens
• foster citizen participation
• further open government
• analyze/monitor public opinion and activities
• educate the public about risks and public health.^[73]

Law enforcement

Social media has been used extensively in civil and criminal investigations.^[74] It has also been used to search for missing persons.^[75] Police departments often make use of official social media accounts to engage with the public, publicize police activity, and burnish law enforcement's image;^[76][77] conversely, video footage of citizen-documented police brutality and other misconduct has sometimes been posted to social media.^[77]

In the United States, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement identifies and track individuals via social media, and has apprehended some people via social media-based sting operations.^[78] U.S. Customs and Border Protection (also known as CPB) and the United States Department of Homeland Security use social media data as influencing factors during the visa process, and monitor individuals after they have entered the country.^[79] CPB officers have also been documented performing searches of electronics and social media behavior at the border, searching both citizens and non-citizens without first obtaining a warrant.^[79]

Reputation management

As social media gained momentum among the younger generations, governments began using it to improve their image, especially among the youth. In January 2021, Egyptian authorities were reported to be using Instagram influencers as part of its media ambassadors program. The program was designed to revamp Egypt's image and to counter the bad press Egypt had received because of the country's human rights record. Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates participated in similar programs.^[80] Similarly, Dubai has extensively relied on social media and influencers to promote tourism. However, Dubai laws have kept these influencers within limits to not offend the authorities, or to criticize the city, politics or religion. The content of these foreign influencers is controlled to make sure that nothing portrays Dubai in a negative light.^[81]

Business

Business uses social media for

Business use of social media is complicated by the fact that the business does not fully control its social media presence. Instead, it makes its case by participating in the "conversation".[84] Business uses social media^[85] on a customer-organizational level; and an intra-organizational level.

Social media can encourage entrepreneurship and innovation, by highlighting successes, and by easing access to resources that might not otherwise be readily available/known.^[86]

Marketing

Social media marketing can help promote a product or service and establish connections with customers. Social media marketing can be divided into paid media, earned media, and owned media.^[87] Using paid social media firms run advertising on a social media platform. Earned social media appears when firms do something that impresses stakeholders and they spontaneously post content about it. Owned social media is the platform markets itself by creating/promoting content to its users.^[88]

Primary uses are to create brand awareness, engage customers by conversation (e.g., customers provide feedback on the firm) and providing access to customer service.^[89] Social media's peer-to-peer communication shifts power from the organization to consumers, since consumer content is widely visible and not controlled by the company.^[90]

In 2013, the United Kingdom Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) began advising celebrities to make it clear whether they had been paid to recommend a product or service by using the hashtag #spon or #ad when endorsing. The US Federal Trade Commission issued similar guidelines.^[93]

Social media platforms also enable

User content can trigger peer effects, increasing consumer interest even without influencer involvement. A 2012 study focused on this communication reported that communication among peers can affect purchase intentions: direct impact through encouraging conformity, and an indirect impact by increasing product engagement. This study claimed that peer communication about a product increased product engagement.^[98]

Politics

Social media have a range of uses in politics.^[99] Politicians use social media to spread their messages and influence voters.^[100]

Dounoucos et al. reported that X use by candidates was unprecedented during the US' 2016 election.^[101][102] The public increased its reliance on social-media sites for political information.^[101] In the European Union, social media amplified political messages.^[103] Foreign-originated social-media campaigns attempt to influence political opinion in another country.^{[104][105][106]}

Activism

Social media was influential in the

Militant groups use social media as an organizing and recruiting tool.^[113] Islamic State (also known as ISIS) used social media. In 2014, #AllEyesonISIS went viral on Arabic X.^[114][115]

Propaganda

Recruiting

Science

Scientists use social media to share their scientific knowledge and research on platforms such as

Academicians use social media activity to assess academic publications,^[123] to measure public sentiment,^[124] identify influencer accounts,^[125] or crowdsource ideas or solutions.^[126]

School admissions

In some places, students have been forced to surrender their social media passwords to school administrators.

Social media comments and images have been used in court cases including employment law, child custody/child support, and disability claims. After an Apple employee criticized his employer on Facebook, he was fired. When the former employee sued Apple for unfair dismissal, the court, after examining the employee's Facebook posts, reported in favor of Apple, stating that the posts breached Apple's policies.[131] After a couple broke up, the man posted song lyrics "that talked about fantasies of killing the rapper's ex-wife" and made threats. A court reported him guilty.^{[131][clarification needed]} In a disability claims case, a woman who fell at work claimed that she was permanently injured; the employer used her social media posts to counter her claims.^[131]

Courts do not always admit social media evidence, in part, because screenshots can be faked or tampered with.^[132] Judges may consider emojis into account to assess statements made on social media; in one Michigan case where a person alleged that another person had defamed them in an online comment, the judge disagreed, noting that an emoji after the comment that indicated that it was a joke.^[132] In a 2014 case in Ontario against a police officer regarding alleged assault of a protester during the G20 summit, the court rejected the Crown's application to use a digital photo of the protest that was anonymously posted online, because it included no metadata verifying its provenance.^[132]

Use by individuals

News source

Social tool

Social media are used to socialize with friends and family^[140] pursue romance and flirt,^[140] but not all social needs can be fulfilled by social media.^[141] For example, a 2003 article reported that lonely individuals are more likely to use the Internet for emotional support than others.^[142] A 2018 survey from Common Sense Media reported that 40% of American teens ages 13–17 thought that social media was "extremely" or "very" important for them to connect with their friends.^[143] The same survey reported that 33% of teens said social media was extremely or very important to conduct meaningful conversations with close friends, and 23% of teens said social media was extremely or very important to document and share their lives.^[143] A 2020 Gallup poll reported that 53% of adult social media users in the United States thought that social media was a very or moderately important way to keep in touch with people during the COVID-19 pandemic.^[144]

In Alone Together Sherry Turkle considered how people confuse social media usage with authentic communication.^[145] She claimed that people act differently online and are less concerned about hurting others' feelings. Some online encounters can cause stress and anxiety, due to the difficulty purging online posts, fear of getting hacked, or of universities and employers exploring social media pages. Turkle speculated that many people prefer texting to face-to-face communication, which can contribute to loneliness.^[145] Surveys from 2019 reported evidence among teens in the United States^[143] and Mexico.^[146] Some researchers reported that exchanges that involved direct communication and reciprocal messages correlated with less loneliness.^[147]

In social media "stalking" or "creeping" refers to looking at someone's "timeline, status updates, tweets, and online bios" to find information about them and their activities.^[148] A sub-category of creeping is creeping ex-partners after a breakup.^[149]

Catfishing (creating a false identity) allows bad actors to exploit the lonely.^[150]

Invidious comparison

Self-presentation theory proposes that people consciously manage their self-image or identity related information in social contexts.^[151] One aspect of social media is the time invested in customizing a personal profile.^[152] Some users segment their audiences based on the image they want to present, pseudonymity and use of multiple accounts on the same platform offer that opportunity.^[153]

A 2016 study reported that teenage girls manipulate their self-presentation on social media to appear beautiful as viewed by their peers.^[154] Teenage girls attempt to earn regard and acceptance (likes, comments, and shares). When this does no go well, self-confidence and self-satisfaction can decline.^[154] A 2018 survey of American teens ages 13–17 by Common Sense Media reported that 45% said likes are at least somewhat important, and 26% at least somewhat agreed that they feel bad about themselves if nobody responds to their photos.^[143] Some evidence suggests that perceived rejection may lead to emotional pain,^[155] and some may resort to online bullying.^[156] according to a 2016 study, users' reward circuits in their brains are more active when their photos are liked by more peers.^[157]

A 2016 review concluded that social media can trigger a negative feedback loop of viewing and uploading photos, self-comparison, disappointment, and disordered body perception when social success is not achieved.^[158] One 2016 study reported that Pinterest is directly associated with disordered dieting behavior.^[159]

People portray themselves on social media in the most appealing way.^[154] However, upon seeing one person's curated persona, other people may question why their own lives are not as exciting or fulfilling. One 2017 study reported that problematic social media use (i.e., feeling addicted to social media) was related to lower life satisfaction and self-esteem.^[160] Studies have reported that social media comparisons can have dire effects on physical and mental health.^[161][162] In one study, women reported that social media was the most influential source of their body image satisfaction; while men reported them as the second biggest factor.^[163] While monitoring the lives of celebrities long predates social media, the ease and immediacy of direct comparisons of pictures and stories with one's own may increase their impact.

A 2021 study reported that 87% of women and 65% of men compared themselves to others on social media.^[164]

Efforts to combat such negative effects focused promoting body positivity. In a related study, women aged 18–30 were reported posts that contained side-by-side images of women in the same clothes and setting, but one image was enhanced for Instagram, while the other was an unedited, "realistic" version. Women who participated in this experiment reported a decrease in body dissatisfaction.^[165]

Health

Adolescents

Social media can offer a support system for adolescent health, because it allows them to mobilize around health issues that they deem relevant.

While social media can provide health information, it typically has no mechanism for ensuring the quality of that information.[168] The National Eating Disorders Association reported a high correlation between weight loss content and disorderly eating among women who have been influenced by inaccurate content.^[168][169] Health literacy offers skills to allow users to spot/avoid such content. Efforts by governments and public health organizations to advance health literacy reportedly achieved limited success.^[170]

Social media such as

During the coronavirus pandemic, inaccurate information from all sides spread widely via social media.[174] Topics subject to distortion included treatments, avoiding infection, vaccination, and public policy. Simultaneously, governments and others influenced social media platforms to suppress both accurate and inaccurate information in support of public policy.^[175] Heavier social media use was reportedly associated with more acceptance of conspiracy theories, leading to worse mental health^[176] and less compliance with public health recommendations.^[177]

Addiction

Social media platforms can serve as a breeding ground for addiction-related behaviors, with studies report that excessive use can lead to addiction-like symptoms. These symptoms include compulsive checking, mood modification, and withdrawal when not using social media, which can result in decreased face-to-face social interactions and contribute to the deterioration of interpersonal relationships and a sense of loneliness.^[178]

Journalism

Journalistic influence has grown less important with the rise of social media, whereas social networking sites such as

A 2017 study reported on a link between sleep disturbance and the use of social media. It concluded that blue light from computer/phone displays—and the frequency rather than the duration of time spent, predicted disturbed sleep, termed "obsessive 'checking'".[185] The association between social media use and sleep disturbance has clinical ramifications for young adults.^[186] A recent study reported that people in the highest quartile for weekly social media use experienced the most sleep disturbance. The median number of minutes of social media use per day was 61. Females were more likely to experience high levels of sleep disturbance.^[187] Many teenagers suffer from sleep deprivation from long hours at night on their phones, and this left them tired and unfocused in school.^[188] A 2011 study reported that time spent on Facebook was negatively associated with GPA, but the association with sleep disturbance was not established.^[189]

Emotional effects

One studied effect of social media is 'Facebook depression', which affects adolescents who spend too much time on social media.^[8] This may lead to reclusiveness, which can increase loneliness and low self-esteem.^[8] Social media curates content to encourage users to keep scrolling.^[186]Studies report children's self-esteem is positively affected by positive comments and negatively affected by negative or lack of comments. This affected self-perception.^[190] A 2017 study of almost 6,000 adolescent students reported that those who self-reported addiction-like symptoms of social media use were more likely to report low self-esteem and high levels of depressive symptoms.^[191]

A second emotional effect is social media burnout, defined as ambivalence, emotional exhaustion, and depersonalization. Ambivalence is confusion about the benefits from using social media. Emotional exhaustion is stress from using social media. Depersonalization is emotional detachment from social media. The three burnout factors negatively influence the likelihood of continuing on social media.^[192]

A third emotional effect is "fear of missing out" (FOMO), which is the "pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent."^[193] It is associated with increased scrutiny of friends on social media.^[193]

Social media can also offer support as X has done for the medical community.^[194] X facilitated academic discussion among health professionals and students, while providing a supportive community for these individuals by and allowing members to support each other through likes, comments, and posts.^[195] Access to social media offered a way to keep older adults connected, after the deaths of partners and geographical distance between friends and loved ones.^[196]

Social impacts and regulation

Disparity

Political polarization

See also:

political polarization due to selective exposure. Political polarization is the divergence of political attitudes towards ideological extremes. Selective exposure occurs when an individual favors information that supports their beliefs and avoids information that conflicts with them. A 2016 study of U.S. elections revealed gender differences in the political use of X between candidates.^[206] On social media women discuss policy issues at a higher rate than males. The study concluded that an increase in female candidates correlated to an increase in the amount of attention paid to policy issues, potentially heightening polarization.^[207]

Efforts to combat selective exposure may increase political polarization. A study examining X activity paid Democrat and Republican participants to follow X users whose content was different from their political beliefs (Republicans received liberal content and Democrats received conservative content) over a six-week period.[208] At the end of the study, both Democrat and Republican participants were reported to have increased political polarization in favor of their own parties, though only Republican participants had an increase that was statistically significant.^[208]

Though some research reported that social media increases political polarization, others reported that social media can persuade users to change their beliefs.^[209][210] A 2016 online survey of 1,024 U.S. users reported that individuals who use social media were more likely to have their political beliefs persuaded than those who did not. In particular, those using social media as a means to receive news were the most likely to change their beliefs.^[209] The persuasion reported by participants was influenced by their exposure to diverse viewpoints, in content they saw as well as political discussions they participated in.^[209] Another similar 2016 study conducted with 189 university students examined the persuasive effect of watching a political comedy video on Facebook, reporting that after watching comedian/political commentator John Oliver, participants were likely to be persuaded to change their viewpoint on the topic (either payday lending or the Ferguson protests) to one that was closer to Oliver.^[210] The persuasive effect was reported to be reduced if they viewed comments by Facebook users that contradicted Oliver.^[210]

Research has also reported that social media use may not affect polarization at all.^[211] A U.S. national survey of 1,032 participants reported that participants who used social media were more likely to be exposed to diverse people and opinions than others, although using social media was not correlated with a change in political polarization for these participants.^[211]

A 2017 study examining the potential polarizing effects of social media on the political views of its users suggested that a new way of engaging with social media must occur to avoid polarization.^[212] The authors stated that media literacy (described as methods that people can use to critique and create media) are valuable, and state that such skills must develop in order to be the most effective. In order to decrease polarization and encourage cooperation among social media users, Relevant skills included connecting with others in a caring way, embracing differences, and understanding the impact of social media on political, social, and cultural issues.^[212]

Stereotyping

See also: Stereotype

A 2018 study reported that social media increases the power of stereotypes.^[213] Stereotypes can have both negative and positive connotations. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, youth were accused of responsibility for spreading the disease.^[214] Elderly people get stereotyped as lacking knowledge of proper behavior on social media.^[215]

Communication

Social media allows for mass

cultural exchange and intercultural communication, despite different ways of communicating in various cultures.^[216]

Social media has affected the way youth communicate, by introducing new forms of language.[217] Novel acronyms save time, as illustrated by "LOL", which is the ubiquitous shortcut for "laugh out loud".

The hashtag was created to simplify searching for information and to allow users to highlight topics of interest in the hope of attracting the attention of others. Hashtags can be used to advocate for a movement, mark content for future use, and allow other users to contribute to a discussion.^[218]

For some young people, social media and texting have largely replaced in person communications, made worse by pandemic isolation, delaying the development of conversation and other social skills.^[219]

What is socially acceptable is now heavily based on social media.^[220] The American Academy of Pediatrics reported that bullying, the making of non-inclusive friend groups, and sexual experimentation have increased cyberbullying, privacy issues, and sending sexual images or messages. Sexting and revenge porn became rampant, particularly among minors, with legal implications and resulting trauma risk.^{[221][222][223][224]} However, adolescents can learn basic social and technical skills online.^[225] Social media, can strengthen relationships just by keeping in touch, making more friends, and engaging in community activities.^[8]

Content moderation

United States

Historically, platforms were responsible for moderating the content that they presented. They set rules for what was allowable, decided which content to promote and which to ignore. The US enacted the Communications Decency Act in 1996. Section 230 of that act exempted internet platforms from legal liability for content authored by third parties.

No provider or user of an interactive computer service shall be treated as the publisher or speaker of any information provided by another information content provider." (47 U.S.C. § 230(c)(1)).

— US Congress, Communications Decency Act Section 230

European Union

The European Union initially took a similar approach.^[226] However, in 2020, the European Commission presented two legislative proposals: The Digital Services Act (DSA) and the Digital Markets Act (DMA). Both proposals were enacted in July 2022. The DSA entered into force on 17 February 2024, the DMA in March 2024.^[227] This legislation can be summarized in the following four objectives, articulated by MEPs:

• "What is illegal offline must also be illegal online".^[228]

• "Very large online platforms" must therefore, among other things
  • delete illegal content (propaganda, election interference, hate crimes and online harms such as harassment and child abuse) and better protect fundamental rights
  • redesign their systems to ensure a "high level of privacy, security and protection of minors", by prohibiting advertising based on personal data, designing recommender systems to minimize risks for children and demonstrating this to the European Commission via a risk assessment, and
  • not use sensitive personal data such as race, gender and religion to target advertising.^[229]

Violators could face a complete ban in Europe or fines of up to 6% of global sales. Such content moderation requires extensive investment by platform providers.^[230] Enforcement resources may not be sufficient to ensure compliance.^[231]

Tthe DSA allows a country to require information to be deleted that is illegal only in that jurisdiction.^[232] For example, Hungary could require a video to be deleted that is in part critical of its government, but the video would then be unavailable in other EU countries as well.

Other regulatory approaches

2018 Nobel Laureate Paul Romer^[233] advocated taxing negative externalities of social media platforms.^[230] Similar to a carbon tax – negative social effects could be compensated for by a financial levy on the platforms.^[234] Assuming that the tax did not deter the actions that produced the externalities, the revenue raised could be used to address them. However, consensus has yet to emerge on how to measure or mitigate the harms, nor to craft a tax, .

Another proposal is to invoke

ex ante

and tightening the law. This would be achieved through a supranational enforcement mechanism and the deterrent effect of high fines.

Business models

The business model of most social media platforms is based on selling slots to advertisers. Platforms provide access to data about each user, which allows them to deliver adds that are individually relevant to them. This strongly incents platforms to arrange their content so that users view as much content as possible, increasing the number of ads that they see. Platforms such as X add paid user subscriptions in part to reduce their dependence on advertising revenues.^[236]

Criticism, debate and controversy

The enormous reach and impact of social media has naturally led to a stream of criticism, debate, and controversy. Criticisms include platform capabilities, content moderation and reliability,^[237] impact on concentration, mental health,^[238] content ownership, and the meaning of interactions, and poor cross-platform interoperability,^[239] decrease in face-to-face interactions, cyberbullying, sexual predation, particularly of children, and child pornography.^[240][241]

In 2007 Andrew Keen wrote, "Out of this anarchy, it suddenly became clear that what was governing the infinite monkeys now inputting away on the Internet was the law of digital Darwinism, the survival of the loudest and most opinionated. Under these rules, the only way to intellectually prevail is by infinite filibustering."^[242]

Trustworthiness and reliability

Social media has become a regular source of news and information. A 2021 Pew Research Center poll reported roughly 70% of users regularly get news from social media,^[4] despite the presence of fake news and misinformation. Platforms typically do not take responsibility for content accuracy, and many do not vet content at all, although in some cases, content the platform finds problematic is deleted or access to it is reduced.^{[243][244][245]} Content distribution algorithms otherwise typically ignore substance, responding instead to the contents' virality.

In 2018, researchers reported that fake news spread almost 70% faster than truthful news on X.^[7] Social media bots on social media increase the reach of both true and false content and if wielded by bad actors misinformation can reach many more users.^[10] Some platforms attempt to discover and block bots, with limited success.^[11] Fake news seems to receive more user engagement, possibly because it is relatively novel, engaging users' curiosity and increasing spread.^[23] Fake news often propagates in the immediate aftermath of an event, before conventional media are prepared to publish.^[20][16]

Data harvesting and data mining

This section is an excerpt from Social media mining.[edit]

Social media mining is the process of obtaining data from user-generated content on social media in order to extract actionable patterns, form conclusions about users, and act upon the information. Mining supports targeting advertising to users or academic research. The term is an analogy to the process of mining for minerals. Mining companies sift through raw ore to find the valuable minerals; likewise, social media mining sifts through social media data in order to discern patterns and trends about matters such as social media usage, online behaviour, content sharing, connections between individuals, buying behaviour. These patterns and trends are of interest to companies, governments and not-for-profit organizations, as such organizations can use the analyses for tasks such as design strategies, introduce programs, products, processes or services.

Social media mining uses concepts from computer science, data mining, machine learning, and statistics. Mining is based on social network analysis, network science, sociology, ethnography, optimization and mathematics. It attempts to formally represent, measure and model patterns from social media data.^[246] In the 2010s, major corporations, governments and not-for-profit organizations began mining to learn about customers, clients and others.

Platforms such as Google, Facebook (partnered with

Datalogix and BlueKai) conduct mining to targe users with advertising.^[247] Scientists and machine learning researchers extract insights and design product features.^[248]

Users may not understand how platforms use their data.[249] Users tend to click through Terms of Use agreements without reading them, leading to ethical questions about whether platforms adequately protect users' privacy.

During the 2016 United States presidential election, Facebook allowed Cambridge Analytica, a political consulting firm linked to the Trump campaign, to analyze the data of an estimated 87 million Facebook users to profile voters, creating controversy when this was revealed.^[250]

Critique of activism

Further information:

Social media activism

Malcolm Gladwell considers the role of social media in revolutions and protests to be overstated. He concluded that while social media makes it easier for activists to express themselves, that expression likely has no impact beyond social media. What he called "high-risk activism" involves strong relationships, coordination, commitment, high risks, and sacrifice.^[251] Gladwell claimed that social media are built around weak ties and argues that "social networks are effective at increasing participation—by lessening the level of motivation that participation requires."^[251] According to him, "Facebook activism succeeds not by motivating people to make a real sacrifice, but by motivating them to do the things that people do when they are not motivated enough to make a real sacrifice."^[251]

Disputing Gladwell's theory, a 2018 survey reported that people who are politically expressive on social media are more likely to participate in offline political activity.^[252]

Content ownership

Social media content is generated by users. However, content ownership is defined by the Terms of Service to which users agree. Platforms control access to the content, and may make it available to third parties.^[253]

Although platform's terms differ, generally they all give permission to utilize users' copyrighted works at the platform's discretion.^[254]

After its acquisition by Facebook in 2012, Instagram revealed it intended to use content in ads without seeking permission from or paying its users.^[255][256] It then reversed these changes, with then-CEO Kevin Systrom promising to update the terms of service.^[257][258]

Privacy

Main article: Privacy concerns with social networking services

Privacy rights advocates warn users about the collection of their personal data. Information is captured without the user's knowing consent. Data may be applied to law enforcement or other governmental purposes.^[259][253] Information may be offered for third party use.

Young people are prone to sharing personal information that can attract predators.^[260]

While social media users claim to want to keep their data private, their behavior does not reflect that concern, as many users expose significant personal data on their profiles.

In addition, platforms collect data on user behaviors that are not part of their personal profiles. This data is made available to third parties for purposes that include targeted advertising.^[261]

A 2014 Pew Research Center survey reported that 91% of Americans "agree" or "strongly agree" that people have lost control over how personal information is collected and used. Some 80% of social media users said they were concerned about advertisers and businesses accessing the data they share on social media platforms, and 64% said the government should do more to regulate advertisers.^[262] In 2019, UK legislators criticized Facebook for not protecting certain aspects of user data.^[263]

In 2019 the

Department of Homeland Security banned the installation and use of TikTok on government devices.^[265]

In 2020 The US government attempted to ban TikTok and WeChat from the States over national security concerns. However, a federal court blocked the move.^[266] In 2024, the US Congress passed a low directing TikTok's parent company ByteDance to divest the service or see the service banned from operating in the US. The company sued, challenging the constitutionality of the ban.^[267]

Addiction

Main article: Problematic social media use

See also: Digital media use and mental health

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Internet addiction disorder.[edit]

Internet addiction disorder (IAD), also known as problematic internet use or pathological internet use, is problematic, compulsive use of the internet, particularly social media, that impairs individual function over a prolonged period of time. Young people are at particular risk of developing internet addiction disorder,^[268] with case studies highlighting students whose academic performance declines as they spend more time online.^[269] Some experience health consequences from loss of sleep^[270] as they stay up to continue scrolling, chatting, and gaming.^[271]

Excessive Internet use is not recognized as a disorder by the

gaming disorder

appears in the ICD-11. Controversy around the diagnosis includes whether the disorder is a separate clinical entity, or a manifestation of underlying psychiatric disorders. Definitions are not standardized or agreed upon, complicating the development of evidence-based recommendations.

Users under 30 access the Internet more than other age groups and experience a higher risk of overuse.^[272]

In 2011 the term "Facebook addiction disorder" (FAD) emerged.^[273] FAD is characterized by compulsive use of Facebook. A 2017 study investigated a correlation between excessive use and narcissism, reporting "FAD was significantly positively related to the personality trait narcissism and to negative mental health variables (depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms)".^[274][275]

In 2020, the documentary The Social Dilemma reported the concerns of mental health experts and former employees of social media companies over social media's pursuit of addictive use. For example when a user has not visited Facebook for some time, the platform varies its notifications, attempting to lure them back. It also raises concerns about the correlation between social media use and child and teen suicidality.^[276]

Turning off social media notifications may help reduce social media use.^[277] For some users, changes in web browsing can be helpful in compensating for self-regulatory problems. For instance, a study involving 157 online learners on massive open online courses examined the impact of such an intervention. The study reported that providing support in self-regulation was associated with a reduction in time spent online, particularly on entertainment.^[278]

Debate over use by young people

Main article: Social media in education

Whether to restrict the use of phones and social media among young people has been debated since smartphones became ubiquitous.^[279] A study of Americans aged 12-15, reported that teenagers who used social media over three hours/day doubled their risk of negative mental health outcomes, including depression and anxiety.^[280] Platforms have not tuned their algorithms to prevent young people from viewing inappropriate content. A 2023 study of Australian youth reported that 57% had seen disturbingly violent content, while nearly half had regular exposure to sexual images.^[281] Further, youth are prone to misuse social media for cyberbullying.

As result, phones have been banned from some schools, and some schools have blocked social media websites.^[282] In 2024, Florida banned the use of social media by minors.^[283]

Censorship

Main articles: Internet censorship, Internet censorship in China, and Internet censorship in India

Social media often features in political struggles. In some countries, Internet police or secret police monitor or control citizens' use of social media. For example, in 2013 some social media was banned in Turkey after the Taksim Gezi Park protests. Both X and YouTube were temporarily suspended in the country by a court's decision. A law granted immunity to Telecommunications Directorate (TİB) personnel. The TİB was also given the authority to block access to specific websites without a court order.^[284] Yet TİB's 2014 blocking of X was ruled by the constitutional court to violate free speech.^[285]

In the 2014 Thai coup d'état, the public was explicitly instructed not to 'share' or 'like' dissenting views on social media or face prison. In July of that year, in response to WikiLeaks' release of a secret suppression order made by the Victorian Supreme Court, media lawyers were quoted in the Australian media to the effect that "anyone who tweets a link to the WikiLeaks report, posts it on Facebook, or shares it in any way online could also face charges".^[286] On 27 July 2020, in Egypt, two women were sentenced to two years of imprisonment for posting TikTok videos, which the government claims are "violating family values".^[287]

United States

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Internet censorship in the United States.[edit]

First Amendment of the United States Constitution protects freedom of speech

and expression against federal, state, and local government censorship.

Free speech protections allow little government-mandated Internet content restrictions. However, the Internet is highly regulated, supported by a complex set of legally binding and privately mediated mechanisms.[288]

Gambling, cyber security, and the dangers to children who frequent social media are important ongoing debates. Significant public resistance to proposed content restriction policies has prevented measures used in some other countries from taking hold in the US^[288]

Many government-mandated attempts to regulate content have been barred, often after lengthy legal battles.^[289] However, the government has exerted pressure indirectly. With the exception of child pornography, content restrictions tend to rely on platforms to remove/suppress content, following state encouragement or the threat of legal action.^[290][288]

Intellectual property protections yielded a system that predictably removes infringing materials.^[288][291] The US also seizes domains and computers, at times without notification.^{[292][293][294][295]}

Decentralization and open standards

While the dominant social media platforms are not interoperable, open source protocols such as

Mastodon, GNU social, Diaspora, and Friendica. They operate as a loose federation of mostly volunteer-operated servers, called the Fediverse. However, in 2019, Mastodon blocked Gab from connecting to it, claiming that it spread violent, right-wing extremism.^[296]

In December 2019, X CEO Jack Dorsey advocated an "open and decentralized standard for social media". He joined Bluesky to bring it to reality.^[297]

Deplatforming

See also: Twitter suspensions

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Deplatforming.[edit]

Deplatforming, (no-platforming), a form of Internet censorship of an individual or group by preventing them from posting on the platforms they use to share their information/ideas. This typically involves suspension, outright bans, or reducing spread (shadow banning) .^[298][299]

As early as 2015, platforms such as Reddit began to enforce selective bans based, for example, on terms of service that prohibit "hate speech".^[300] The most notorious examples of deplatforming were Twitter's ban of then-US President Donald Trump shortly after and the New York Post during the 2020 presidential election.^[301]

Extremist groups

Main article: Terrorism and social media

According to LikeWar: The Weaponization of Social Media,

right-wing extremists have used similar online tactics. As many traditional social media platforms banned hate speech, several platforms became popular among right-wing extremists to carry out planning and communication including of events; these application became known as "Alt-tech". Platforms such as Telegram, Parler, and Gab were used during the January 6 United States Capitol attack, to coordinate attacks.^[305] Members shared tips on how to avoid law enforcement and their plans on carrying out their objectives; some users called for killing law enforcement officers and politicians.^[306]

Deceased users

Further information: Death and the Internet

Social media content, persists unless the user deletes it. After a user dies, unless the platform is notified, their content remains.^[307]Each platform has created guidelines for this situation.^[308] In most cases on social media, the platforms require a next-of-kin to prove that the user is deceased, and give them the option of closing the account or maintaining it in a 'legacy' status.

Guidelines for users who have died, by platform^[308]

Platform	Guideline
X[309]	T company works with an immediate family member to deactivate the account. Additionally, X will not give the account to any other person, regardless of the relationship.
Facebook	Users have the option of having their account permanently deleted after death. Users can identify a 'legacy contact' who would take over the account after.
Instagram[310]	Users can have the account memorialized or deleted with proof of death.
LinkedIn[311]	A family member can request that the account be deleted. The family member must identify the account, submit proof of relationship, the user's email address, date of death, a link to the obituary, and the name of the last company the deceased worked for.
Pinterest	Must email the company with the URL of the account along with a death certificate or a link to the obituary, as well as proof of relationship to the deceased.
YouTube[312]	A representative can close the account, transfer payments from the account to an immediate family member and legal representative of the user's estate, and can provide the data in the account to a family member. All three capabilities require the requestor's government-issued ID or driver's license, the decedent's death certificate, and additional supporting documentation.
WeChat	The heir must supply the user's death certificate, authentication of family relationship. Yhe successor can then obtain the assets.

See also

• Attention inequality – Term used to explain attention distribution across social media
• Augmented reality – View of the real world with computer-generated supplementary features
• Citizen media – Journalistic content produced by private citizens who are not professional journalists
• Coke Zero Facial Profiler – free Facebook appPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
• Connectivism – Theory of learning in a digital age
• Connectivity (media) – wrt. mediaPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
• Content aggregator – Client software that aggregates syndicated web content
• Culture jamming – Form of protest to subvert media culture
• Deplatforming – Administrative or political action to deny access to a platform to express opinions
• Digital detox – Process of not using digital devices
• The Disinformation Project – Misinformation research group in New Zealand
• Internet politics – Global system of connected computer networks
• Landing page – Type of web page
• List of online video platforms
• List of image-sharing websites
• List of social bookmarking websites
• List of social networking services
• Metcalfe's law – Value of a communication network is proportional the square of the number of pairwise connections
• MMORPG
   – Video game genrePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• Networked learning – process of developing and maintaining connections with people and informationPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
• New media – Forms of media native to computers
• Online presence management – Promoting a person or business online
• Online research community – market researchPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
• Participatory media – Communication media where the audience can play an active role
• Psychological effects of Internet use
• Social media and the Arab Spring
   – The role of social media in early 2010s Middle East/North Africa protestsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• Social media bias – Bias within the mass media
• Social influence bias – Herd behaviours in online social media
• Social media and psychology – Interaction between usage of social media and psychology of social media users
• Social media in education
• Social media mining
• Social media optimization – Form of optimization
• Social media surgery – gathering at which volunteers with expertise in using web tools, chiefly social media, offer free advice in using such tools, to representatives of non-profit organisations, community groups etc.Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
• Social networking service – Online platform that

facilitates the building of relations

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Further reading

• Agozzino, Alisa (2012). "Building A Personal Relationship Through Social Media: A Study Of Millenial Students' Brand Engagement". Ohio Communication Journal. 50: 181–204.
• Al-Rahmi, Waleed Mugahed; Othman, Mohd Shahizan (2013). "The Impact of Social Media use on Academic Performance among university students: A Pilot Study". Journal of Information Systems Research and Innovation: 1–10.
• Aral, Sinan (2020). The Hype Machine: How Social Media Disrupts Our Elections, Our Economy, and Our Health—and How We Must Adapt. Currency.
  ISBN 978-0-525-57451-4
  .
• OCLC 61881089
  .
• Beshears, Michael L. (2016). "Effectiveness of Police Social Media Use". American Journal of Criminal Justice. 42 (3): 489–501.
  S2CID 151928750
  .
• Blankenship, M (2011). "How social media can and should impact higher education". The Education Digest. 76 (7): 39.
  ProQuest 848431918
  .
• ISBN 978-1-4462-5731-9
  .
• Gentle, Anne (2012). Conversation and Community: The Social Web for Documentation (2nd ed.). Laguna Hills, CA: XML Press.
  OCLC 794490599
  .
• OCLC 57514882
  .
• Jordan, Kasteler (2017). "How to use SEO data in your social media strategy".
• Jue, Arthur L.; Alcalde Marr, Jackie; Kassotakis, Mary Ellen (2010). Social media at work : how networking tools propel organizational performance (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
  ISBN 978-0-470-40543-7
  .
• Lardi, Kamales; Fuchs, Rainer (2013). Social Media Strategy – A step-by-step guide to building your social business (1st ed.). Zurich: vdf.
  ISBN 978-3-7281-3557-5
  .
• Li, Charlene; Bernoff, Josh (2008).
  OCLC 423555651
  .
• Mateus, Samuel (2012). "Social Networks Scopophilic dimension – social belonging through spectatorship". Observatorio (OBS*) Journal (Special Issue).
  S2CID 142933378
  .
• McHale, Robert; Garulay, Eric (2012). Navigating Social Media Legal Risks: Safeguarding Your Business. Que.
  ISBN 978-0-7897-4953-6
  .
• ISBN 978-0-691-15339-1
  .
• Powell, Guy R.; Groves, Steven W.; Dimos, Jerry (2011). ROI of Social Media: How to improve the return on your social marketing investment. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
  OCLC 0470827416
  .
• Rheingold, Howard (2002). Smart mobs: The next social revolution (1st printing ed.). Cambridge, MA: Perseus Pub. p. 288.
  ISBN 978-0-7382-0608-0
  .
• Schoen, Harald; Gayo-Avello, Daniel; Takis Metaxas, Panagiotis; Mustafaraj, Eni; Strohmaier, Markus; Gloor, Peter (2013). "The power of prediction with social media". Internet Research. 23 (5): 528–543.
  doi:10.1108/IntR-06-2013-0115
  .
• Schrape, JF (2017). "Reciprocal irritations: Social media, mass media and the public sphere". Society, Regulation and Governance. New Modes of Shaping Social Change?. pp. 138–150.
  ISBN 978-1-78643-838-6
  .
• OCLC 61757953
  .
• OCLC 458788924
  .
• Siegel, Alyssa (7 September 2015). "How Social Media Affects Our Relationships". Psychology Tomorrow. Archived from the original on 1 July 2016.
• OCLC 156770258
  .
• OCLC 318389282
  .
• Tedesco, Laura Anne (October 2000). "Lascaux (ca. 15,000 B.C.)". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
• Watts, Duncan J. (2003). Six degrees: The science of a connected age. London: Vintage. p. 368.
  ISBN 978-0-09-944496-1
  .

External links

Scholia has a topic profile for Social media.

Wikinews has related news:

• New American Psychological Association guidelines: Parents should advise teenagers on social media use, impose restrictions

• Media related to Social media at Wikimedia Commons