Parliamentary system
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A parliamentary system, or parliamentary democracy, is a system of democratic government where the head of government (who may also be the head of state) derives their democratic legitimacy from their ability to command the support ("confidence") of the legislature, typically a parliament, to which they are accountable.
In a
Countries with parliamentary systems may be
History
Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders. Eventually, these councils slowly evolved into the modern parliamentary system.
The first
In England,
In the
Other countries gradually adopted what came to be called the
After the
Characteristics
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2016) |
A parliamentary system may be either
Types
Scholars of democracy such as Arend Lijphart distinguish two types of parliamentary democracies: the Westminster and Consensus systems.[18]
Westminster system
- The first past the post), such as the United Kingdom, Canada, India and Malaysia, while others use some form of proportional representation, such as Ireland and New Zealand. The Australian House of Representatives is elected using instant-runoff voting, while the Senate is elected using proportional representation through single transferable vote. Regardless of which system is used, the voting systems tend to allow the voter to vote for a named candidate rather than a closed list. Most Westminster systems employ strict monism, where Ministers must be members of Parliament simultaneously; while some Westminster systems, such as Bangladesh,[22][non-primary source needed] permit the appointment of extra-parliamentary Ministers, and others (such as Jamaica) allow outsiders to be appointed to the Ministry through an appointed Upper House, although a majority of Ministers (which, by necessity, includes the Prime Minister) must come from within (the lower house of) Parliament.
Consensus system
- The Western European parliamentary model (e.g., Spain, Germany) tends to have a more consensual debating system and usually has semi-circular debating chambers. Consensus systems have more of a tendency to use plenary chamber. Most Western European countries do not employ strict monism, and allow extra-parliamentary ministers as a matter of course. The Netherlands, Slovakia and Sweden outright implement the principle of dualism as a form of separation of powers, where Members of Parliament have to resign their place in Parliament upon being appointed (or elected) minister.
Appointment of the head of government
Implementations of the parliamentary system can also differ as to how the prime minister and government are appointed and whether the government needs the explicit approval of the parliament, rather than just the absence of its disapproval. While most parliamentary systems such as India require the prime minister and other ministers to be a member of the legislature, in other countries like Canada and the United Kingdom this only exists as a convention, some other countries including Norway, Sweden and the Benelux countries require a sitting member of the legislature to resign such positions upon being appointed to the executive.
- The head of state appoints a prime minister who will likely have majority support in parliament. While in the majority of cases prime ministers in the Westminster system are the leaders of the largest party in parliament, technically the appointment of the prime minister is a prerogative exercised by the head of state (be it the monarch, the governor-general, or the president). This system is used in:
- The head of state appoints a prime minister who must gain a vote of confidence within a set time. This system is used in:
- The head of state appoints the leader of the political party holding a plurality of seats in parliament as prime minister. For example, in Greece, if no party has a majority, the leader of the party with a plurality of seats is given an exploratory mandate to receive the confidence of the parliament within three days. If said leader fails to obtain the confidence of parliament, then the leader of the second-largest party is given the exploratory mandate. If that fails, then the leader of the third-largest political party is given the exploratory mandate, and so on. This system is used in:
- The head of state nominates a candidate for prime minister who is then submitted to parliament for approval before appointment. Example: Spain, where the King sends a proposal to the German Basic Law (constitution) the Bundestag votes on a candidate nominated by the federal president. In these cases,[citation needed] parliament can choose another candidate who then would be appointed by the head of state. This system is used in:
- Parliament nominates a candidate whom the head of state is constitutionally obliged to appoint as prime minister. Example: Japan, where the Emperor appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the National Diet. Also Ireland, where the President of Ireland appoints the Taoiseach on the nomination of Dáil Éireann. This system is used in:
- A public officeholder (other than the head of state or their representative) nominates a candidate, who, if approved by parliament, is appointed as prime minister. Example: Under the Swedish Instrument of Government (1974), the power to appoint someone to form a government has been moved from the monarch to the Speaker of Parliament and the parliament itself. The speaker nominates a candidate, who is then elected to prime minister (statsminister) by the parliament if an absolute majority of the members of parliament does not vote against the candidate (i.e. they can be elected even if more members of parliament vote No than Yes). This system is used in:
- Direct election by popular vote. Example: Israel, 1996–2001, where the prime minister was elected in a general election, with no regard to political affiliation, and whose procedure can also be described as of a semi-parliamentary system.[23][24] This system was used in:
Power of dissolution and call for election
Furthermore, there are variations as to what conditions exist (if any) for the government to have the right to dissolve the parliament:
- In some countries, especially those operating under a Westminster system, such as the United Kingdom, Denmark, Malaysia, Australia and New Zealand, the prime minister has the de facto power to call an election, at will. In Spain, the prime minister is the only person with the de jure power to call an election, granted by Article 115 of the Constitution.
- In Israel, parliament may vote to dissolve itself in order to call an election, or the prime minister may call a snap election with presidential consent if his government is deadlocked. A non-passage of the budget automatically calls a snap election.
- Other countries only permit an election to be called in the event of a vote of no confidence against the government, a supermajority vote in favour of an early election or a prolonged deadlock in parliament. These requirements can still be circumvented. For example, in Germany in 2005, Gerhard Schröderdeliberately allowed his government to lose a confidence motion, in order to call an early election.
- In Sweden, the government may call a snap election at will, but the newly elected Riksdag is only elected to fill out the previous Riksdag's term. The last time this option was used was in 1958.
- In Greece, a general election is called if the Parliament fails to elect a new head of state when his or her term ends. In January 2015, this constitutional provision was exploited by Syriza to trigger a snap election, win it and oust rivals New Democracy from power.
- In Italy the government has no power to call a snap election. A snap election can only be called by the head of state, following a consultation with the presidents of both houses of parliament.
- Norway is unique among parliamentary systems in that the Storting always serves the whole of its four-year term.
- In Australia, under certain, unique conditions, the prime minister can request the Governor General to call for a double dissolution, whereby all rather than only half of the Senate, is dissolved – in effect electing all of the Parliament simultaneously.
The parliamentary system can be contrasted with a
Parliamentarianism may also apply to
Anti-defection law
A few parliamentary democratic nations such as India, Pakistan and Bangladesh have enacted laws that prohibit floor crossing or switching parties after the election. Under these laws, elected representatives will lose their seat in the parliament if they go against their party in votes.[25][26][27]
In the UK parliament, a member is free to cross over to a different party. In Canada and Australia, there are no restraints on legislators switching sides.[28] In New Zealand, waka-jumping legislation provides that MPs who switch parties or are expelled from their party may be expelled from Parliament at the request of their former party's leader.
Parliamentary sovereignty
A few parliamentary democracies such as the United Kingdom and New Zealand have weak or non-existent checks on the legislative power of their Parliaments,[29][30] where any newly approved Act shall take precedence over all prior Acts. All laws are equally unentrenched, wherein judicial review may not outright annul nor amend them, as frequently occurs in other parliamentary systems like Germany. Whilst the head of state for both nations (Monarch, and or Governor General) has the de jure power to withhold assent to any bill passed by their Parliament, this check has not been exercised in Britain since the 1708 Scottish Militia Bill.
Whilst both the UK and New Zealand have some Acts or parliamentary rules establishing supermajorities or additional legislative procedures for certain legislation, such as previously with the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 (FTPA), these can be bypassed through the enactment of another that amends or ignores these supermajorities away, such as with the Early Parliamentary General Election Act 2019 – bypassing the 2/3rd supermajority required for an early dissolution under the FTPA[31] -, which enabled the early dissolution for the 2019 general election.
Metrics
Parliamentarism metrics allow a quantitative comparison of the strength of parliamentary systems for individual countries. One parliamentarism metric is the Parliamentary Powers Index.[32]
Advantages
Adaptability
Parliamentary systems like that found in the United Kingdom are widely considered to be more flexible, allowing a rapid change in legislation and policy as long as there is a stable majority or coalition in parliament, allowing the government to have 'few legal limits on what it can do'[33] When combined with first-past-the-post voting, this system produces the classic "Westminster model" with the twin virtues of strong but responsive party government.[34] This electoral system providing a strong majority in the House of Commons, paired with the fused power system results in a particularly powerful government able to provide change and 'innovate'.[33]
Scrutiny and accountability
The United Kingdom's fused power system is often noted to be advantageous with regard to accountability. The centralised government allows for more transparency as to where decisions originate from, this contrasts with the American system with Treasury Secretary C. Douglas Dillon saying "the president blames Congress, the Congress blames the president, and the public remains confused and disgusted with government in Washington".[35] Furthermore, ministers of the U.K. cabinet are subject to weekly Question Periods in which their actions/policies are scrutinised; no such regular check on the government exists in the U.S. system.
Distribution of power
A 2001 World Bank study found that parliamentary systems are associated with less corruption.[36]
Calling of elections
This section is written like a personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic. (January 2024) |
In his 1867 book The English Constitution, Walter Bagehot praised parliamentary governments for producing serious debates, for allowing for a change in power without an election, and for allowing elections at any time. Bagehot considered fixed-term elections such as the four-year election rule for presidents of the United States to be unnatural, as it can potentially allow a president who has disappointed the public with a dismal performance in the second year of his term to continue on until the end of his four-year term. Under a parliamentary system, a prime minister that has lost support in the middle of his term can be easily replaced by his own peers with a more popular alternative, as the Conservative Party in the UK did with successive prime ministers David Cameron, Theresa May, Boris Johnson, Liz Truss, and Rishi Sunak.
Although Bagehot praised parliamentary governments for allowing an election to take place at any time, the lack of a definite election calendar can be abused. Under some systems, such as the British, a ruling party can schedule elections when it believes that it is likely to retain power, and so avoid elections at times of unpopularity. (From 2011, election timing in the UK was partially fixed under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, which was repealed by the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022.) Thus, by a shrewd timing of elections, in a parliamentary system, a party can extend its rule for longer than is feasible in a presidential system. This problem can be alleviated somewhat by setting fixed dates for parliamentary elections, as is the case in several of Australia's state parliaments. In other systems, such as the Dutch and the Belgian, the ruling party or coalition has some flexibility in determining the election date. Conversely, flexibility in the timing of parliamentary elections can avoid periods of legislative gridlock that can occur in a fixed period presidential system. In any case, voters ultimately have the power to choose whether to vote for the ruling party or someone else.
Disadvantages
Incomplete separation of power
This article may lend undue weight to this section by making broad generalisations based solely on one citation, and looking solely at one country's parliamentary system. (January 2024) |
According to Arturo Fontaine, parliamentary systems in Europe have yielded very powerful heads of government which is rather what is often criticized about presidential systems. Fontaine compares United Kingdom's Margaret Thatcher to the United States' Ronald Reagan noting the former head of government was much more powerful despite governing under a parliamentary system.[37] The rise to power of Viktor Orbán in Hungary has been claimed to show how parliamentary systems can be subverted.[37] The situation in Hungary was according to Fontaine allowed by the deficient separation of powers that characterises parliamentary and semi-presidential systems.[37] Once Orbán's party got two-thirds of the seats in Parliament in a single election, a supermajority large enough to amend the Hungarian constitution, there was no institution that was able to balance the concentration of power.[37] In a presidential system it would require at least two separate elections to create the same effect; the presidential election, and the legislative election, and that the president's party has the legislative supermajority required for constitutional amendments. Safeguards against this situation implementable in both systems include the establishment of an upper house or a requirement for external ratification of constitutional amendments such as a referendum. Fontaine also notes as a warning example of the flaws of parliamentary systems that if the United States had a parliamentary system, Donald Trump, as head of government, could have dissolved the United States Congress.[37]
Legislative flip-flopping
This article may lend undue weight to by making broad generalisations but citing only one authority. (January 2024) |
The ability for strong parliamentary governments to push legislation through with the ease of fused power systems such as in the United Kingdom, whilst positive in allowing rapid adaptation when necessary e.g. the nationalisation of services during the world wars, in the opinion of some commentators does have its drawbacks. For instance, the flip-flopping of legislation back and forth as the majority in parliament changed between the Conservatives and Labour over the period 1940–1980, contesting over the nationalisation and privatisation of the British Steel Industry resulted in major instability for the British steel sector.[33]
Political fragmentation
This article may lend undue weight to by making broad generalisations but citing only one authority. (January 2024) |
In R. Kent Weaver's book Are Parliamentary Systems Better?, he writes that an advantage of presidential systems is their ability to allow and accommodate more diverse viewpoints. He states that because "legislators are not compelled to vote against their constituents on matters of local concern, parties can serve as organizational and roll-call cuing vehicles without forcing out dissidents."[33]
Democratic unaccountability
This section is written like a personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic. (January 2024) |
This section possibly contains original research. Nothing in the citation supports the statements in this section. (January 2024) |
All current parliamentary democracies see the indirect election or appointment of their head of government. As a result, the electorate has limited power to remove or install the person or party wielding the most power. Although strategic voting may enable the party of the prime minister to be removed or empowered, this can be at the expense of voters first preferences in the many parliamentary systems utilising first past the post, or having no effect in dislodging those parties who consistently form part of a coalition government, as with the current Dutch prime minister Mark Rutte and his party the VVD's 4 terms in office, despite their peak support reaching only 26.6% in 2012.[38]
Countries
Africa
Country | Connection between the legislature and the executive |
---|---|
Botswana | Parliament of Botswana elects the President who appoints the Cabinet |
Ethiopia | Federal Parliamentary Assembly appoints the Council of Ministers |
Lesotho | Prime Minister of Lesotho
|
Mauritius | National Assembly appoints the Cabinet of Mauritius
|
Somalia | Prime Minister
|
South Africa | Parliament of South Africa elects the President who appoints the Cabinet |
Americas
Country | Connection between the legislature and the executive |
---|---|
Antigua and Barbuda | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Representatives of Antigua and Barbuda is appointed Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda by the Governor-General of Antigua and Barbuda, who then appoints the Cabinet of Antigua and Barbuda on the advice of the Prime Minister
|
The Bahamas | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Assembly of the Bahamas is appointed Prime Minister of the Bahamas by the Governor-General of the Bahamas, who then appoints the Cabinet of the Bahamas on the advice of the Prime Minister
|
Barbados | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Assembly of Barbados is appointed Prime Minister of Barbados by the President of Barbados, who then appoints the Cabinet of Barbados on the advice of the Prime Minister |
Belize | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Prime Minister of Belize by the Governor-General of Belize, who then appoints the Cabinet of Belize on the advice of the Prime Minister
|
Canada | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Commons of Canada is appointed Prime Minister of Canada by the Governor General of Canada, who then appoints the Cabinet of Canada on the advice of the Prime Minister |
Dominica | Parliament approves the Cabinet of Dominica |
Grenada | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Cabinet of Grenada on the advice of the Prime Minister
|
Jamaica | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Representatives of Jamaica is appointed Prime Minister of Jamaica by the Governor-General of Jamaica, who then appoints the Cabinet of Jamaica on the advice of the Prime Minister
|
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Cabinet of Saint Kitts and Nevis on the advice of the Prime Minister
|
Saint Lucia | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Cabinet of Saint Lucia on the advice of the Prime Minister
|
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Cabinet of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines on the advice of the Prime Minister
|
Suriname | Cabinet of Suriname
|
Trinidad and Tobago | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Cabinet of Trinidad and Tobago on the advice of the Prime Minister
|
Asia
Country | Connection between the legislature and the executive |
---|---|
Armenia | National Assembly appoints and (no sooner than one year) can dismiss through the constructive vote of no confidence the Government of Armenia |
Bangladesh | Jatiya Sangsad approves the Cabinet of Bangladesh |
Bhutan | Lhengye Zhungtshog
|
Cambodia | Council of Ministers
|
Republic of China (Taiwan) |
|
Georgia | The Parliament and then formally appointed by the President. The Prime Minister then appoints the Cabinet of Ministers .
|
India | President of India appoints the leader of the political party or alliance that has the support of a majority in the Lok Sabha as Prime Minister of India, who then forms the Union Council of Ministers |
Iraq | Cabinet of Iraq
|
Israel | A member of the Knesset that has the best chance of forming a coalition is given a mandate to do so by the President of Israel. On success, they are appointed as the Prime Minister of Israel. The Prime Minister then appoints the Cabinet of Israel. |
Japan | National Diet nominates the Prime Minister who appoints the Cabinet of Japan |
Kuwait | Prime Minister who appoints the Cabinet of Kuwait
|
Laos | National Assembly elects the President who nominates the Prime Minister
|
Lebanon | Maronite Christian president is elected by the Cabinet of Lebanon through a vote of confidence (a simple majority).
|
Malaysia | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, who then appoints the Cabinet of Malaysia on the advice of the Prime Minister.
|
Myanmar | Assembly of the Union, by an electoral college, elects the President who forms the Cabinet of Myanmar. However, Myanmar is currently under the rule of the State Administration Council, which assumed power by coup d'état
|
Nepal | Cabinet of Nepal
|
Pakistan | Parliament of Pakistan appoints the Cabinet of Pakistan |
Singapore | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Parliament of Singapore is appointed Prime Minister of Singapore by the President of Singapore, who then appoints the Cabinet of Singapore on the advice of the Prime Minister. |
Thailand | The Monarch appoints the MP or individual nominated by in the House of Representatives (usually the leader of the largest party or coalition) as Prime Minister, who forms the Cabinet of Thailand. |
Vietnam | . |
Europe
Country | Connection between the legislature and the executive |
---|---|
Albania | Cabinet of Albania
|
Andorra | |
Austria | In theory, chancellor and ministers are appointed by the President. As a practical matter, they are unable to govern without the support (or at least toleration) of a majority in the National Council. The cabinet is politically answerable to the National Council and can be dismissed by the National Council through a motion of no confidence. |
Belgium | Cabinet of Belgium
|
Bulgaria | Council of Ministers of Bulgaria
|
Croatia | Cabinet nominated by him/her.
|
Czech Republic | Chamber of Deputies .
|
Denmark | The Folketinget .
|
Estonia | Government of the Republic of Estonia is later appointed by the President of the Republic under proposal of the approved Prime Minister candidate. The Riigikogu may remove the Prime Minister and any other member of the government through a motion of no confidence.
|
Finland | Cabinet of Finland
|
Germany | Federal Chancellor (after nomination from the President of Germany), who forms the Cabinet
|
Greece | Hellenic Parliament approves the Cabinet of Greece |
Hungary | Cabinet of Hungary
|
Iceland | The President of Iceland appoints and discharges the Cabinet of Iceland. Ministers can not even resign without being discharged by presidential decree. |
Ireland | Dáil Éireann nominates the Taoiseach, who is then appointed by the President of Ireland |
Italy | Cabinet of Italy, appointed by the President of Italy
|
Kosovo | Assembly of Kosovo appoints the Government of Kosovo
|
Latvia | Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia
|
Luxembourg | Cabinet of Luxembourg
|
Malta | House of Representatives appoints the Cabinet of Malta
|
Moldova | Parliament of Moldova appoints the Cabinet of Moldova |
Montenegro | Parliament of Montenegro appoints the Government of Montenegro |
Netherlands | Second Chamber of the States-General can dismiss the Cabinet of the Netherlands through a motion of no confidence |
North Macedonia | Assembly approves the Government of North Macedonia |
Norway | The Cabinet
|
Poland | The President of Poland and the governing party in the Sejm are elected by popular vote. The President appoints the Prime Minister from the largest party or coalition as the head of government. However, the Polish system is often regarded as de facto semi-presidential – the President of Poland has the power to veto legislation passed by parliament and can dissolve the parliament under certain conditions.[39][40][41] The Constitution of Poland defines the country's system as de jure parliamentary republic. |
Portugal | After the elections for the Assembly of the Republic or the resignation of the previous government, the president listens to the parties in the Assembly of the Republic and invites someone to form a government, usually the leader of the biggest party. Then the president swears in the prime minister and the Government. |
San Marino | |
Serbia | National Assembly appoints the Government of Serbia
|
Slovakia | National Council approves the Government of Slovakia
|
Slovenia | National Assembly appoints the Government of Slovenia |
Spain | Cabinet
|
Sweden | The Riksdag elects the Prime Minister, who in turn appoints the other members of the Government |
United Kingdom | The Leader, almost invariably a Member of Parliament (MP) and of the political party which commands or is likely to command the confidence of a majority of the House of Commons, is appointed Prime Minister by the British sovereign, who then appoints members of the Cabinet on the nomination and advice of the Prime Minister. |
Oceania
Country | Connection between the legislature and the executive |
---|---|
Australia | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Australian House of Representatives is appointed Prime Minister of Australia by the Governor-General of Australia, who then appoints the Cabinet of Australia on the advice of the Prime Minister |
New Zealand | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the New Zealand House of Representatives is appointed Prime Minister of New Zealand by the Governor-General of New Zealand, who then appoints the Cabinet of New Zealand on the advice of the Prime Minister |
Papua New Guinea | Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Cabinet of Papua New Guinea on the advice of the Prime Minister
|
Samoa | Legislative Assembly appoints the Cabinet of Samoa |
Vanuatu | Parliament of Vanuatu appoints the Cabinet of Vanuatu |
See also
- Law reform
- List of legislatures by country
- List of political systems in France
- Parliament in the Making
- Parliamentary leader
- Rule according to higher law
- Rule of law
- Parliamentary monarchy
- Parliamentary republic
- Strengthened parliamentary system
References
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- ^ John Keane: The Life and Death of Democracy, London 2009, 169–176.
- ISBN 9788472837508.
- ISBN 978-1-84725-226-5. Archivedfrom the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
- ^ "Simon de Montfort: The turning point for democracy that gets overlooked". BBC. 19 January 2015. Archived from the original on 19 January 2015. Retrieved 19 January 2015
- ^ "The January Parliament and how it defined Britain". The Telegraph. 20 January 2015. Archived from the original on 23 January 2015. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
- ^ Norgate, Kate (1894). . In Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 38. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
- ISBN 978-1139991384. Archivedfrom the original on 30 June 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
Britain pioneered the system of liberal democracy that has now spread in one form or another to most of the world's countries
- ^ "Constitutionalism: America & Beyond". Bureau of International Information Programs (IIP), U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
The earliest, and perhaps greatest, victory for liberalism was achieved in England. The rising commercial class that had supported the Tudor monarchy in the 16th century led the revolutionary battle in the 17th, and succeeded in establishing the supremacy of Parliament and, eventually, of the House of Commons. What emerged as the distinctive feature of modern constitutionalism was not the insistence on the idea that the king is subject to law (although this concept is an essential attribute of all constitutionalism). This notion was already well established in the Middle Ages. What was distinctive was the establishment of effective means of political control whereby the rule of law might be enforced. Modern constitutionalism was born with the political requirement that representative government depended upon the consent of citizen subjects.... However, as can be seen through provisions in the 1689 Bill of Rights, the English Revolution was fought not just to protect the rights of property (in the narrow sense) but to establish those liberties which liberals believed essential to human dignity and moral worth. The "rights of man" enumerated in the English Bill of Rights gradually were proclaimed beyond the boundaries of England, notably in the American Declaration of Independence of 1776 and in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789.
- ^ Blick, Andrew; Jones, George (1 January 2012). "The Institution of Prime Minister". History of Government Blog. Government of the United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016.
- ISBN 9781400878260. Archivedfrom the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
- ^ "How the Westminster Parliamentary System was exported around the World". University of Cambridge. 2 December 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
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- ^ Lijphart, Arend (1999). Patterns of democracy. New Haven: Yale University Press.
- ISBN 978-9004151741. Archivedfrom the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
- ^ "How the Westminster Parliamentary System was exported around the World". University of Cambridge. 2 December 2013. Archived from the original on 16 December 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
- ISBN 9780773525085. Archivedfrom the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
- ^ "The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh". bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd. Article 56. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
- ISSN 0152-0768. Archived from the original(PDF) on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
- ISBN 9788814143885. Archived from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 13 November 2016 – via Google Books.
- ^ "The Anti-Defection Law – Intent and Impact Background Note for the Conference on Effective Legislatures" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 August 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
- ^ "Anti-defection law the challenges". legalservicesindia.com. Archived from the original on 2 December 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
- ^ "ANTI-DEFECTION LAW: A DEATH KNELL FOR PARLIAMENTARY DISSENT?" (PDF). NUJS Law Review. March 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
- ^ "[Columns] Anti-Defection Laws in India: Its flaws and its falls". 1 August 2019.
- ^ "UK Parliament glossary". UK Parliament. 27 October 2022. Archived from the original on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
- ^ "Our system of government". New Zealand Parliament. 20 January 2016. Archived from the original on 17 October 2022. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
- ^ "Fixed-term Parliament Act 2011". UK Parliament. 26 November 2021. Archived from the original on 21 October 2022. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-521-51466-8.
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- ^ Sundquist, James L. (1992). Constitutional reform and effective government. Internet Archive. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution.
- .
- ^ a b c d e Valenzuela Manguini, Álvaro (5 November 2021). "Arturo Fontaine: "Si se estableciera el semipresidencialismo, a poco andar el pueblo sentiría que ha sido engañado"". Emol (in Spanish). Retrieved 7 November 2021.
- ^ Henley, Jon (14 December 2021). "'Teflon' Mark Rutte set for fourth Dutch term after record-breaking talks". The Guardian. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
- ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (September 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
- . Retrieved 21 August 2017.
Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger's sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia, Poland, and Senegal. In these cases, while the government is fully accountable to parliament, it cannot legislate without taking the potentially different policy preferences of the president into account.
- ^ McMenamin, Iain. "Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation in Poland" (PDF). School of Law and Government, Dublin City University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 February 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2017.