Political repression in the Soviet Union
Mass repression in the Soviet Union |
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Economic repression |
Political repression |
Ideological repression |
Ethnic repression |
Throughout the history of the Soviet Union, tens of millions of people suffered political repression, which was an instrument of the state since the October Revolution. It culminated during the Stalin era, then declined, but it continued to exist during the "Khrushchev Thaw", followed by increased persecution of Soviet dissidents during the Brezhnev era, and it did not cease to exist until late in Mikhail Gorbachev's rule when it was ended in keeping with his policies of glasnost and perestroika.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8]
Origins and early Soviet times
Politics of the Soviet Union |
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Soviet Union portal |
Secret police had a long history in Tsarist Russia. Ivan the Terrible used the Oprichina, while more recently the Third Section and Okhrana existed.
Early on, the Leninist view of the class conflict and the resulting notion of the dictatorship of the proletariat provided the theoretical basis of the repressions. Its legal basis was formalized into the Article 58 in the code of the Russian SFSR and similar articles for other Soviet republics.[citation needed]
According to historian
At times, the repressed were called the
State repression led to incidents of popular resistance, such as the
In 1919, 612 "hardcore" deserters of the total 837,000 draft dodgers and deserters were executed following Trotsky's dracionan measures.[16] According to Figes, "a majority of deserters (most registered as "weak-willed") were handed back to the military authorities, and formed into units for transfer to one of the rear armies or directly to the front". Even those registered as "malicious" deserters were returned to the ranks when the demand for reinforcements became desperate". Forges also noted that the Red Army instituted amnesty weeks to prohibit punitive measures against desertion which encouraged the voluntary return of 98,000-132,000 deserters to the army.[17]
Red Terror
In his book,
According to Vadim Erlikhman's investigation, the number of the Red Terror's victims is at least 1,200,000 people.[26] According to Robert Conquest, a total of 140,000 people were shot in 1917–1922.[27] Candidate of Historical Sciences Nikolay Zayats states that the number of people shot by the Cheka in 1918–1922 is about 37,300 people, shot in 1918–1921 by the verdicts of the tribunals—14,200, i.e. about 50,000–55,000 people in total, although executions and atrocities were not limited to the Cheka, having been organized by the Red Army as well.[28]
In 1924, anti-Bolshevik Popular Socialist Sergei Melgunov (1879–1956) published a detailed account on the Red Terror in Russia, where he cited Professor Charles Saroléa's estimates of 1,766,188 deaths from the Bolshevik policies. He questioned the accuracy of the figures, but endorsed Saroléa's "chracterisation of terror in Russia", stating it matches reality.[29][30][31] Modern historian Sergei Volkov, assessing the Red Terror as the entire repressive policy of the Bolsheviks during the years of the Civil War (1917–1922), estimates the direct death toll of the Red Terror at 2 million people.[31][32] Volkov's calculations, however, do not appear to have been confirmed by other major scholars.[34]
Collectivization
Collectivization in the
Great Purge
The Great Purge (
LGBT persecution
On September 15, 1933, the deputy head of the
Stalin ordered "to punish the scumbags" in a demonstrative way, and to introduce a corresponding directive into the legislation. At the first stage, about 130 people were arrested who gave the necessary confessions under torture, and on December 17, 1933, the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR decided to extend criminal liability to "unnatural relationship". The article was added to the Criminal Code of the RSFSR on April 1, 1934 in the section "sexual crimes" under number 154-a. "Voluntary" sexual intercourse between two men was sentenced to three to five years in the camps, and for "cohabitation" with the use of violence - from five to eight [48].
Nikolai Klyuev was the first known homosexual to suffer from Soviet repressions. The poet was accused of writing love lyrics that "were written from a male person to a male person." In February 1934, Klyuyev was arrested in his apartment on charges of "composing and distributing counter-revolutionary literary works", and in 1937 he was shot [49] [50] [51] [52].
In later times, the most famous victim of the Soviet repression against the LGBT was a film director Sergei Parajanov [53].
Population transfers
Population transfer in the Soviet Union may be divided into the following broad categories: deportations of "
Entire nations and ethnic groups were collectively punished by the Soviet government for their
Gulag
The Gulag "was the branch of the State Security that operated the penal system of forced labour camps and associated detention and transit camps and prisons. While these camps housed criminals of all types, the Gulag system has become primarily known as a place for political prisoners and as a mechanism for repressing political opposition to the Soviet state."[57][58]
Repressions in annexed territories
During the early years of World War II, the Soviet Union annexed several territories in Eastern Europe as a consequence of the German–Soviet Pact and its Secret Additional Protocol.[59]
Baltic States
In the
Poland
Romania
Post-Stalin era (1953–1991)
After
Loss of life
Estimates of the number of deaths attributable specifically to Joseph Stalin vary widely. Some scholars assert that record-keeping of the executions of political prisoners and ethnic minorities are neither reliable nor complete;[64] others contend archival materials contain irrefutable data far superior to sources utilized prior to 1991, such as statements from emigres and other informants.[65][66] Those historians working after the Soviet Union's dissolution have estimated victim totals ranging from approximately 3 million[67] to nearly 9 million.[68] Some scholars still assert that the death toll could be in the tens of millions.[69]
American historian
Some of these estimates rely in part on demographic losses. Conquest explained how he arrived at his estimate: "I suggest about eleven million by the beginning of 1937, and about three million over the period 1937–38, making fourteen million. The eleven-odd million is readily deduced from the undisputed population deficit shown in the suppressed census of January 1937, of fifteen to sixteen million, by making reasonable assumptions about how this was divided between birth deficit and deaths."[74]
Australian historian Stephen G. Wheatcroft claims that prior to the opening of the archives for historical research, "our understanding of the scale and the nature of Soviet repression has been extremely poor" and that some specialists who wish to maintain earlier high estimates of the Stalinist death toll are "finding it difficult to adapt to the new circumstances when the archives are open and when there are plenty of irrefutable data" and instead "hang on to their old Sovietological methods with round-about calculations based on odd statements from emigres and other informants who are supposed to have superior knowledge."[65][66] Conversely, some historians believe that the official archival figures of the categories that were recorded by Soviet authorities are unreliable and incomplete.[64] In addition to failures regarding comprehensive recordings, as one additional example, Canadian historian Robert Gellately and British historian Simon Sebag Montefiore argue that the many suspects beaten and tortured to death while in "investigative custody" were likely not to have been counted amongst the executed.[66]
Event | Deaths | References |
---|---|---|
1- Red Terror | 50,000 – 2,000,000 | [75][76][29] |
2- Dekulakization | 389,521 – 5,000,000 | [77][78] |
3- Gulag | 1,053,829 - 2,500,000 | [67][79] |
4- Great Purge | 683,692 – 1,200,000 | [67][80] |
5- Deportation of national minorities | 450,000 – 1,500,000 | [81][82][56] |
A- Repression outside of famine | 2,627,042 – 12,200,000 | Sum of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 above |
6- Russian famine of 1921–1922 | 1,000,000 – 5,000,000 | [83][84] |
7- Soviet famine of 1930–1933 | 5,700,000 – 8,700,000 | [85][86][87] |
8- Soviet famine of 1946–1947 | 500,000 - 2,000,000 | [88]: 233 [89] |
B- Famine deaths | 7,200,000 – 15,700,000 | Sum of 6 and 7 above |
Total | 9,827,042 – 27,900,000 | Sum of A and B above |
Remembering the victims
A Day of Remembrance for the Victims of Political Repression (День памяти жертв политических репрессий) has been officially held on 30 October in Russia since 1991. It is also marked in other former Soviet republics except Ukraine, which has its own annual Day of Remembrance for the victims of political repressions by the Soviet regime, held each year on the third Sunday of May.
Members of the Memorial society took an active part in such commemorative meetings.[citation needed] Since 2007, Memorial had also organised the day-long "Restoring the Names" ceremony at the Solovetsky Stone in Moscow every 29 October.[90] The organization was banned by the Russian government in 2022.[91][92][93] Some of Memorial's human rights activities have continued in Russia.[94]
The Wall of Grief in Moscow, inaugurated in October 2017, is Russia's first monument ordered by presidential decree for people killed during the Stalinist repressions in the Soviet Union.[95][96]
See also
- Active measures
- Crimes against humanity under communist regimes
- Criticism of communist party rule
- Goli Otok
- Hitler Youth conspiracy
- Human rights in the Soviet Union
- Mass killings under communist regimes
- Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union
- Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc
- Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
- Rehabilitation (Soviet)
- Law of the Soviet Union
- Politics of the Soviet Union
- Soviet repressions in Belarus
- The Black Book of Communism
- Anti-religious campaign during the Russian Civil War (1917–1921)
- RSFSR and USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)
- USSR anti-religious campaign (1928–1941)
- USSR anti-religious campaign (1958–1964)
- USSR anti-religious campaign (1970s–1987)
References
Notes
- ^ "Past political repression creates long-lasting mistrust". 2 March 2022.
- ^ "How Lenin's Red Terror set a macabre course for the Soviet Union". National Geographic Society. 2 September 2020. Archived from the original on February 22, 2021.
- ^ "How the 'Red Terror' Exposed the True Turmoil of Soviet Russia 100 Years Ago". 5 September 2018.
- JSTOR 2938412.
- S2CID 159758939.
- ^ "The Soviet Massive Deportations - A Chronology | Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance – Réseau de recherche". 18 April 2019.
- ^ "Great Purge | History & Facts | Britannica". 8 June 2023.
- ^ "Gulag | Definition, History, Prison, & Facts | Britannica". 21 June 2023.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-85036-261-9.
- ISBN 978-1-78168-721-5.
- ^ Anton Antonov-Ovseenko Beria (Russian) Moscow, AST, 1999. Russian text online
- ^ Mayer 2002, p. 395; Werth 1999, p. 117.
- ^ Figes 1997, p. 768; Pipes 2011, pp. 387–401.
- ^ Figes (1997), Chapter 13.
- ^ Courtois et al, 1999: [page needed]
- ISBN 978-0-8061-9356-4.
- JSTOR 650938.
- ISBN 978-0-7486-0317-6.
- ^ Ryan (2012), p. 2.
- ^ Ryan (2012), p. 114.
- ^ a b Stone, Bailey (2013). The Anatomy of Revolution Revisited: A Comparative Analysis of England, France, and Russia. Cambridge University Press. p. 335.
- ^ Pipes, Richard (2011). The Russian Revolution. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 838.
- ^ Lowe (2002), p. 151.
- ISBN 0-671-63166-7.
... the best estimates set the probable number of executions at about a hundred thousand.
- ^ "On the scale of the Red Terror during the Civil War". scepsis.net.
- ^ Эрлихман В. В. Потери народонаселения в XX веке.: Справочник — М.: Издательский дом «Русская панорама», 2004. — ISBN 5-93165-107-1
- ^ a b Conquest, Robert (2007). The Great Terror: A Reassessment, 40th Anniversary Edition. Oxford University Press. pp. in Preface, p. xvi: "Exact numbers may never be known with complete certainty, but the total of deaths caused by the whole range of Soviet regime's terrors can hardly be lower than some fifteen million.".
- ^ К вопросу о масштабах красного террора в годы Гражданской войны
- ^ a b Часть IV. На гражданской войнe. // Sergei Melgunov «Красный террор» в России 1918–1923. — 2-ое изд., доп. — Берлин, 1924
- ISBN 978-3-940452-47-4. An online English translation of the second edition of Melgunov's work is accessible at Internet Archive, whence the following translated text is drawn (p. 85, note n. 128): "Professor Sarolea, who published a series of articles about Russia in Edinburgh newspaper “The Scotsman” touched upon the death statistics in an essay on terror (No. 7, November 1923.). He summarized the outcome of the Bolshevik massacre as follows: 28 bishops, 1219 clergy, 6000 professors and teachers, 9000 doctors, 54,000 officers, 260,000 soldiers, 70,000 policemen, 12,950 landowners, 355,250 professionals, 193,290 workers, 815,000 peasants. The author did not provide the sources of that data. Needless to say that the precise counts seem [too] fictional, but the author’s [characterisation] of terror in Russia in general matches reality."
- ^ a b Перевощиков А. (August 2010). "Генетическому фонду России был нанесен чудовищный, не восполненный до сего времени, урон". Официальный сайт Московского регионального отделения движения "Народный собор". Archived from the original on 2010-09-11. Retrieved 2020-01-02.
- ^ Timofeychev, Alexey (7 September 2018). "How many lives did the Red Terror claim?". Russia Beyond. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
- ^ Graziosi (2007), pp. 171 & 570.
- ^ In particular, they seem quite at odds with the demographic considerations elaborated by Italian historian and professor Andrea Graziosi in the light of the good quality Tsarist and early Soviet statistics. According to him, the excess deaths between 1914 and 1922 were about 16 million, of which 4–5 were military, the rest civilian. The overwhelming majority of the latter resulted from "starvation, typhus, epidemics, the Spanish flu and the famine of 1921-22", the roughly number of "victims of the various kinds of terror, and red and white repressions" amounting to a few hundred thousand— albeit a dreadful number in itself.[33]
- ^ Davies, R.W., The Soviet Collective Farms, 1929–1930, Macmillan, London (1980), p. 1.
- ISBN 5-85207-044-0. p. 317
- Zerkalo Nedeli, November 23–29, 2002.
- ISBN 9786155225635.
- ^ a b Figes, 2007: pp. 227–315
- ISBN 1-4000-4005-1
- ISBN 978-0521259217, retrieved 2021-12-02
- ^ Homkes, Brett (2004). "Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Purge". McNair Scholars Journal.
- ISSN 0966-8136.
- ISBN 978-1-000-95544-6.
- ISBN 978-1-4985-9153-9.
- ^ Игорь Кон. Лики и маски однополой любви: лунный свет на заре
- ^ Как в СССР преследовали гомосексуалов - история, фото
- ^ Дэн Хили. Гомосексуальное влечение в революционной России: регулирование сексуально-гендерного диссидентства = Homosexual Desire in Revolutionary Russia: The Regulation of Sexual and Gender Dissent / науч. ред. Л. В. Бессмертных, Ю. А. Михайлов, пер. с англ. Т .Ю. Логачева, В. И. Новиков. — Москва: НИЦ «Ладомир», 2008. — 624 с. — (Русская потаенная литература). — 1000 экз.
- ^ "Возлюбленный - камень, где тысячи граней...". Николай Клюев
- ^ З. Дичаров. Николай Алексеевич Клюев // «Писатели Ленинграда»
- ^ Русские писатели XX века. — М.: 2000. С. 346
- ^ Николай Клюев. Сердце Единорога. Стихотворения и поэмы. — СПб.: РХГИ, 1999. — С. 9—67. — 1072 с.
- ^ СЛЕДЫ КГБ И ЩЕРБИЦКОГО В ДЕЛЕ ПАРАДЖАНОВА
- ^ Conquest, 1986: [page needed]
- ^ Grieb 2014, p. 930.
- ^ a b Werth 2004, p. 73.
- ISBN 978-0767900560.
- ^ Robert Service (June 7, 2003). "The accountancy of pain". The Guardian.
- ^ The Soviet occupation and incorporation at Encyclopædia Britannica
- ISBN 978-1317475934.
- ^ Dunsdorfs, Edgars. The Baltic Dilemma. Speller & Sons, New York. 1975
- ^ Küng, Andres. Communism and Crimes against Humanity in the Baltic States. 1999 "Communism and Crimes against Humanity in the Baltic states". Archived from the original on 2001-03-01. Retrieved 2015-02-17.
- ^ "Dangerous Minds". www.hrw.org.
- ^ a b "SOVIET STUDIES". sovietinfo.tripod.com. Retrieved 2019-05-28.
- ^ JSTOR 152781.
- ^ S2CID 205667754.
- ^ JSTOR 2166597.
- ^ Snyder, Timothy (2011-01-27). "Hitler vs. Stalin: Who Was Worse?". The New York Review of Books. Retrieved 2019-05-28.
- ISBN 978-0-415-77757-5.
- ^ Pipes, Richard (2001). Communism: A History. USA. p. 67.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ "How Many Did Stalin Really Murder? | The Distributed Republic". www.distributedrepublic.net. Archived from the original on 2017-09-30. Retrieved 2019-05-28.
- .
- ISBN 9780307427939.
- ^ Conquest, Robert (October 1996). "Robert Conquest, Excess Deaths in the Soviet Union, NLR I/219, September–October 1996". New Left Review (I/219): 143. Retrieved 2019-05-28.
- ^ Stone, Bailey (2013). The Anatomy of Revolution Revisited: A Comparative Analysis of England, France, and Russia. Cambridge University Press. p. 335.
- ^ Lowe, Norman (2002). Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History. Palgrave. ISBN 9780333963074. p. 151
- ^ Pohl, J. Otto (1999). Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30921-2. LCCN 98-046822 p. 46
- ISBN 978-3486855548.
- ^ Nakonechnyi, Mikhail (2020). 'Factory of invalids': Mortality, disability and early release on medical grounds in GULAG, 1930–1955 (Thesis). University of Oxford.
- S2CID 43510161.
The best estimate that can currently be made of the number of repression deaths in 1937–38 is the range 950,000–1.2 million, i.e. about a million. This is the estimate which should be used by historians, teachers and journalists concerned with twentieth century Russian—and world—history
- LCCN 2008-015571.
- ^ Grieb, Christiane (2014). "Warsaw, Battle for". In C. Dowling, Timothy (ed.). Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598849486. LCCN 2014017775. p.930
- ^ Bertrand M. Patenaude. The Big Show in Bololand. The American Relief Expedition to Soviet Russia in the Famine of 1921. Stanford University Press, 2002. p. 197.
- ^ Norman Lowe. Mastering Twentieth-Century Russian History. Palgrave, 2002. p. 155.
- ISBN 9780230238558.
- .
- S2CID 226316468.
- OCLC 929124088.
- ^ Ganson, Nicholas (2009). "Introduction: Famine of Victors". The Soviet Famine of 1946–1947 in Global and Historical Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. xii–xix. ISBN 9780230613331.
- ^ "Restoring the Names, Dmitriev Affair website, 30 October 2017.
- ^ "Russia: Dissolution of Human Rights Center "Memorial" confirmed in…". OMCT. Retrieved 2023-01-06.
- ^ "The Organization Has Been Liquidated by a Court Decision". Memorial Society. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
- ^ Chernova, Anna. "Historic Russian Human Rights Center Closes, Warns of "Return to the Totalitarian Past"". CNN. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
- ^ Старикова, М. (7 April 2022). ""Мемориал" после ликвидации объявил о старте нового проекта" [after the liquidation, "Memorial" announced the start of a new project] (in Russian). Коммерсантъ. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
- РБК(in Russian). 30 October 2017.
- ^ "Wall of Grief: Putin opens first Soviet victims memorial". BBC News. 30 October 2017.
Bibliography
- Conquest, Robert (1986). ISBN 978-0-19-505180-3.
- Courtois, Stephane; et al., eds. (1999). The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-07608-2.
- Figes, Orlando (2007). The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-8050-7461-1.
- JSTOR 2166597.
- Grieb, Christiane (2014). "War Crimes, Soviet, World War II". In C. Dowling, Timothy (ed.). Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond. ABC-CLIO. LCCN 2014017775.
- Lindy, Jacob D.; Lifton, Robert Jay (2001). Beyond invisible walls: the psychological legacy of Soviet trauma, East European therapists, and their patients. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-58391-318-5.
- Lowe, Norman (2002). Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History. Palgrave. ISBN 9780333963074.
- "New directions in Gulag studies: a roundtable discussion," Canadian Slavonic Papers 59, no 3-4 (2017)
- Nove, Alec (1993). "Victims of Stalinism: How Many?". In Getty, J. Arch; Manning, Roberta T. (eds.). Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44670-9.
- Ryan, James (2012). Lenin's Terror: The Ideological Origins of Early Soviet State Violence. London: ISBN 978-1138815681.
- JSTOR 152781.
- Wheatcroft, S. G. (2000). "The Scale and Nature of Stalinist Repression and its Demographic Significance: On Comments by Keep and Conquest" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 52 (6): 1143–1159. S2CID 205667754.
- Lynne Viola, "New sources on Soviet perpetrators of mass repression: a research note," Canadian Slavonic Papers 60, no 3-4 (2018)
- Figes, Orlando (1997). A People's Tragedy. ISBN 0670859168.
- Mayer, Arno J. (2002). The Furies: Violence and Terror in the French and Russian Revolutions. ISBN 978-0-691-09015-3.
- Pipes, Richard (2011). Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-78861-0.
- Werth, Nicolas (1999). "A State against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union". ISBN 978-0-674-07608-2.
- LCCN 2003026805.
Further reading
- Brooks, Jeffrey (2000). Thank you, comrade Stalin!: Soviet public culture from revolution to Cold War. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00411-2.
- ISBN 978-0-230-27397-9.
- Ellman, Michael (November 2002). "Soviet repression statistics: some comments". S2CID 43510161.
- Eremina, Larisa; Roginsky, Arseny [Лариса Еремина, Арсений Рогинский] (2002). Расстрельные списки: Москва, 1937–1941: "Коммунарка", Бутово: книга памяти жертв политических репрессий [Shot lists: Moscow, 1937–1941: "Kommunarka", Butovo: the book for commemoration of political repression victims] (in Russian). Moscow: ISBN 978-5787000597.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - Eremina, Larisa; Roginsky, Arseny [Лариса Еремина, Арсений Рогинский] (2005). Расстрельные списки: Москва, 1935–1953: Донское кладбище (Донской крематорий): книга памяти жертв политических репрессий [Shot lists: Moscow, 1935–1953: the Donskoye cemetery (the Donskoy crematorium): the book for commemoration of political repression victims] (in Russian). Moscow: ISBN 978-5787000818.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - Haynes, Michael; Husan, Rumy (2003). A Century Of State Murder? Death and Policy in Twentieth Century Russia. ISBN 978-0745319308.
- Johns, Michael (Fall 1987). "Seventy years of evil: Soviet crimes from Lenin to Gorbachev". Policy Review: 10–23.
- Leggett, George (1981). The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822862-2.
- Medvedev, Roy Aleksandrovich (1985). On Soviet Dissent. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-04813-2.
- Rosefielde, Steven (2009). Red Holocaust. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-77757-5.
- Samatan, Marie (1980). Droits de l'homme et répression en URSS: l'appareil et les victimes [Human rights and repression in the USSR: mechanism and victims] (in French). Paris: Seuil. ISBN 978-2020057059.
- Shearer, David R. (2009). Policing Stalin's socialism: repression and social order in the Soviet Union, 1924–1953. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14925-8.
- Solomon, Peter H. (1996). Soviet criminal justice under Stalin. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56451-9.
- Wintrobe, Ronald (2000). The Political Economy of Dictatorship. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79449-7.
- Александр Подрабинек (2015). Наша кампания за амнистию [Our campaign for amnesty]. Zvezda (in Russian) (4). Retrieved 2 September 2015.
- Zhanbosinova, Albina [Альбина Жанбосинова] (2013). "Политические репрессии в СССР (1920–1950 гг.): историко-статистическое исследование" [Political repression in the USSR (1920–1950s): historical and statistical research] (PDF). European Researcher (in Russian). 45 (4–1): 811–822. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 November 2015.
- "Political repressions in the USSR". The Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center. Archived from the original on 2016-02-14. Retrieved 2015-09-17.
External links
- Media related to Political repression in the Soviet Union at Wikimedia Commons