Shen Kuo
Shen Kuo 沈括 | |
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Public Administration | |
Institutions | Hanlin Academy |
Shen Kuo | ||
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Tâi-lô | Sím Kuat |
Shen Kuo (
In his Dream Pool Essays or Dream Torrent Essays[3] (夢溪筆談; Mengxi Bitan) of 1088, Shen was the first to describe the magnetic needle compass, which would be used for navigation (first described in Europe by Alexander Neckam in 1187).[4][5] Shen discovered the concept of true north in terms of magnetic declination towards the north pole,[5] with experimentation of suspended magnetic needles and "the improved meridian determined by Shen's [astronomical] measurement of the distance between the pole star and true north".[6] This was the decisive step in human history to make compasses more useful for navigation, and may have been a concept unknown in Europe for another four hundred years (evidence of German sundials made circa 1450 show markings similar to Chinese geomancers' compasses in regard to declination).[7]
Alongside his colleague
Shen Kuo wrote several other books besides the Dream Pool Essays, yet much of the writing in his other books has not survived. Some of Shen's
Life
Birth and youth
Shen Kuo was born in Qiantang (modern-day
From about 1040 AD, Shen's family moved around Sichuan province and finally to the international seaport at Xiamen, where Shen's father accepted minor provincial posts in each new location.[12] Shen Zhou also served several years in the prestigious capital judiciary, the equivalent of a national supreme court.[11] Shen Kuo took notice of the various towns and rural features of China as his family traveled, while he became interested during his youth in the diverse topography of the land.[12] He also observed the intriguing aspects of his father's engagement in administrative governance and the managerial problems involved; these experiences had a deep impact on him as he later became a government official.[12] Since he often became ill as a child, Shen Kuo also developed a natural curiosity about medicine and pharmaceutics.[12]
Shen Zhou died in the late winter of 1051 (or early 1052), when his son Shen Kuo was 21 years old. Shen Kuo grieved for his father, and following
Official career
In 1063 Shen Kuo successfully passed the
In his career as a
As written by Li Zhiyi, a man married to Hu Wenrou (granddaughter of Hu Su, a famous minister of the Song dynasty), Shen Kuo was Li's mentor while Shen served as an official.[18] According to Li's epitaph for his wife, Shen would sometimes relay questions via Li to Hu when he needed clarification for his mathematical work, as Hu Wenrou was esteemed by Shen as a remarkable female mathematician.[18] Shen lamented: "If only she were a man, Wenrou would be my friend."[18]
While employed by the central government, Shen Kuo was also sent out with others to inspect the granary system of the empire, investigating problems of illegal tax-collection, negligence, ineffective disaster relief, and inadequate water-conservancy projects.[19] While Shen was appointed as the regional inspector of Zhejiang in 1073, the Emperor requested that Shen pay a visit to the famous poet Su Shi (1037–1101), then an administrator in Hangzhou.[20] Shen took advantage of this meeting to copy some of Su's poetry, which he presented to the Emperor indicating that it expressed "abusive and hateful" speech against the Song court; these poems were later politicized by Li Ding and Shu Dan in order to level a court case against Su. (The Crow Terrace Poetry Trial, of 1079.)[20] With his demonstrations of loyalty and ability, Shen Kuo was awarded the honorary title of a State Foundation Viscount by Emperor Shenzong of Song (r. 1067–1085), who placed a great amount of trust in Shen Kuo.[17] He was even made 'companion to the heir apparent' (太子中允; 'Taizi zhongyun').[1]
At court Shen was a political favorite of the Chancellor
Although much of Wang Anshi's reforms outlined in the
Impeachment and later life
The new Chancellor Cai Que (蔡確; 1036–1093) held Shen responsible for the disaster and loss of life.
In his more idle years removed from court affairs, Shen Kuo enjoyed pastimes of
In the 1070s, Shen had purchased a lavish garden estate on the outskirts of modern-day Zhenjiang, Jiangsu province, a place of great beauty which he named "Dream Brook" ("Mengxi") after he visited it for the first time in 1086.[17] Shen Kuo permanently moved to the Dream Brook Estate in 1088, and in that same year he completed his life's written work of the Dream Pool Essays, naming the book after his garden-estate property. It was there that Shen Kuo spent the last several years of his life in leisure, isolation, and illness, until his death in 1095.[17]
Scholarly achievements
Shen Kuo wrote extensively on a wide range of different subjects. His written work included two geographical
Raised-relief map
Joseph Needham suggests that certain pottery vessels of the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) showing artificial mountains as lid decorations may have influenced the development of the raised-relief map in China.[33] The Han dynasty general Ma Yuan (14 BC – 49 AD) is recorded as having made a raised-relief map of valleys and mountains in a rice-constructed model of 32 AD.[34] Shen Kuo's largest atlas included twenty three maps of China and foreign regions that were drawn at a uniform scale of 1:900,000.[6] Shen also created a raised-relief map using sawdust, wood, beeswax, and wheat paste.[6][35] Zhu Xi (1130–1200) was inspired by the raised-relief map of Huang Shang and so made his own portable map made of wood and clay which could be folded up from eight hinged pieces.[36]
Pharmacology
For pharmacology, Shen wrote of the difficulties of adequate diagnosis and therapy, as well as the proper selection, preparation, and administration of drugs.[37] He held great concern for detail and philological accuracy in identification, use and cultivation of different types of medicinal herbs, such as in which months medicinal plants should be gathered, their exact ripening times, which parts should be used for therapy; for domesticated herbs he wrote about planting times, fertilization, and other matters of horticulture.[38] In the realms of botany, zoology, and mineralogy, Shen Kuo documented and systematically described hundreds of different plants, agricultural crops, rare vegetation, animals, and minerals found in China.[39][40][41][42] For example, Shen noted that the mineral orpiment was used to quickly erase writing errors on paper.[43]
Civil engineering
The writing of Shen Kuo is the only source for the date when the
If it were not for Shen Kuo's analysis and quoting in his
Anatomy
The Chinese had long taken an interest in examining the human body. For example, in 16 AD, the
Mathematics
In the broad field of mathematics, Shen Kuo mastered many practical mathematical problems, including many complex formulas for geometry,[54] circle packing,[55] and chords and arcs problems employing trigonometry.[56] Shen addressed problems of writing out very large numbers, as large as (104)43.[57] Shen's "technique of small increments" laid the foundation in Chinese mathematics for packing problems involving equal difference series.[57] Sal Restivo writes that Shen used summation of higher series to ascertain the number of kegs which could be piled in layers in a space shaped like the frustum of a rectangular pyramid.[58][59] In his formula "technique of intersecting circles", he created an approximation of the arc of a circle s given the diameter d, sagitta v, and length of the chord c subtending the arc, the length of which he approximated as s = c + 2v2/d.[57] Restivo writes that Shen's work in the lengths of arcs of circles provided the basis for spherical trigonometry developed in the 13th century by Guo Shoujing (1231–1316).[58] He also simplified the counting rods technique by outlining short cuts in algorithm procedures used on the counting board, an idea expanded on by the mathematician Yang Hui (1238–1298).[60] Victor J. Katz asserts that Shen's method of "dividing by 9, increase by 1; dividing by 8, increase by 2," was a direct forerunner to the rhyme scheme method of repeated addition "9, 1, bottom add 1; 9, 2, bottom add 2".[61]
Shen wrote extensively about what he had learned while working for the state treasury, including mathematical problems posed by computing
Optics
Shen Kuo experimented with the
Magnetic needle compass
Since the time of the engineer and inventor Ma Jun (c. 200–265), the Chinese had used the south-pointing chariot, which did not employ magnetism, as a compass. In 1044 the Collection of the Most Important Military Techniques (武經總要; Wujing Zongyao) recorded that fish-shaped objects cut from sheet iron, magnetized by thermoremanence (essentially, heating that produced weak magnetic force), and placed in a water-filled bowl enclosed by a box were used for directional pathfinding alongside the south-pointing chariot.[73][74]
However, it was not until the time of Shen Kuo that the earliest
Shen Kuo wrote that it was preferable to use the twenty-four-point rose instead of the old eight compass cardinal points — and the former was recorded in use for navigation shortly after Shen's death.
Archaeology
Many of Shen Kuo's contemporaries were interested in
While working in the Bureau of Astronomy, Shen Kuo's interest in archaeology and old relics led him to reconstruct an armillary sphere from existing models as well as from ancient texts that could provide additional information.
After unearthing an ancient crossbow device from a house's garden in Haichow, Jiangsu, Shen discovered that the cross-wire grid sighting device, marked in graduated measurements on the stock, could be used to calculate the height of a distant mountain in the same way that mathematicians could apply right-angle triangles to measure height.
Geology
The ancient
It was Shen Kuo who formulated a hypothesis about the process of land formation (
Shen also wrote that since petrified bamboos were found underground in a climatic area where they had never been known to be grown, the
The Song dynasty philosopher Zhu Xi (1130–1200) wrote of this curious natural phenomenon of fossils as well. He was known to have read the works of Shen Kuo.[92] Shen's description of soil erosion and weathering predated that of Georgius Agricola in his book of 1546, De veteribus et novis metallis.[94] Furthermore, Shen's theory of sedimentary deposition predated that of James Hutton, whose groundbreaking work was published in 1802 (considered the foundation of modern geology).[94] Historian Joseph Needham likened Shen's account to that of the Scottish scientist Roderick Murchison (1792–1871), who was inspired to become a geologist after observing a providential landslide.[94]
Meteorology
Early speculation and hypothesis pertaining to what is now known as
Shen gave reasoning (earlier proposed by Sun Sikong, 1015–1076) that rainbows were formed by the shadow of the sun in rain, occurring when the sun would shine upon it.[97][98][99] Paul Dong writes that Shen's explanation of the rainbow as a phenomenon of atmospheric refraction "is basically in accord with modern scientific principles."[100] In Europe, Roger Bacon (1214–1294) was the first to suggest that the colors of the rainbow were caused by the reflection and refraction of sunlight through rain drops.[71]
Shen hypothesized that rays of sunlight refract before reaching the surface of the earth, hence people on earth observing the sun are not viewing it in its exact position, in other words, the altitude of the apparent sun is higher than the actual altitude of the sun.[100] Dong writes that "at the time, this discovery was remarkably original."[100] Ibn al-Haytham, in his Book of Optics (1021), also discussed atmospheric refraction in regard to twilight.[71]
Astronomy and instruments
Being the head official for the Bureau of Astronomy, Shen Kuo was an avid scholar of medieval astronomy, and improved the designs of several astronomical instruments. Shen is credited with making improved designs of the
The astronomical phenomena of the
Shen is also known for his
Along with his colleague Wei Pu in the Bureau of Astronomy, Shen Kuo planned to plot out the exact coordinates of planetary and lunar movements by recording their astronomical observations three times a night for a continuum of five years.[8] The Song astronomers of Shen's day still retained the lunar theory and coordinates of the earlier Yi Xing, which after 350 years had devolved into a state of considerable error.[8] Shen criticized earlier Chinese astronomers for failing to describe celestial movement in spatial terms, yet he did not attempt to provide any reasoning for the motive power of the planets or other celestial movements.[112] Shen and Wei began astronomical observations for the Moon and planets by plotting their locations three times a night for what should have been five successive years.[8] The officials and astronomers at court were deeply opposed to Wei and Shen's work, offended by their insistence that the coordinates of the renowned Yi Xing were inaccurate.[113] They also slandered Wei Pu, out of resentment that a commoner had expertise exceeding theirs.[114] When Wei and Shen made a public demonstration using the gnomon to prove the doubtful wrong, the other ministers reluctantly agreed to correct the lunar and solar errors.[113][115] Despite this success, they eventually dismissed Wei and Shen's tables of planetary motions.[22] Therefore, only the worst and most obvious planetary errors were corrected, and many inaccuracies remained.[114]
Movable type printing
Shen Kuo wrote that during the Qingli reign period (1041–1048), under Emperor Renzong of Song (1022–1063), an obscure commoner and artisan known as Bi Sheng (990–1051) invented ceramic movable type printing.[116][117] Although the use of assembling individual characters to compose a piece of text had its origins in antiquity, Bi Sheng's methodical innovation was something completely revolutionary for his time. Shen Kuo noted that the process was tedious if one only wanted to print a few copies of a book, but if one desired to make hundreds or thousands of copies, the process was incredibly fast and efficient.[116] Beyond Shen Kuo's writing, however, nothing is known of Bi Sheng's life or the influence of movable type in his lifetime.[118] Although the details of Bi Sheng's life were scarcely known, Shen Kuo wrote:
When Bi Sheng died, his fount of type passed into the possession of my followers (i.e. one of Shen's nephews), among whom it has been kept as a precious possession until now.[2][119]
There are a few surviving examples of books printed in the late Song dynasty using movable type printing.
By the 15th century, metal movable type printing was developed in Ming dynasty China (and earlier in Goryeo Korea, by the mid 13th century), and was widely applied in China by at least the 16th century.[127] In Jiangsu and Fujian, wealthy Ming era families sponsored the use of metal type printing (mostly using bronze). This included the printing works of Hua Sui (1439–1513), who pioneered the first Chinese bronze-type movable printing in the year 1490.[128] In 1718, during the mid Qing dynasty (1644–1912), the scholar of Tai'an known as Xu Zhiding developed movable type with enamelware instead of earthenware.[122] There was also Zhai Jinsheng (b. 1784), a teacher of Jingxian, Anhui, who spent thirty years making a font of earthenware movable type, and by 1844 he had over 100,000 Chinese writing characters in five sizes.[122]
Despite these advances, movable type printing never gained the amount of widespread use in East Asia that woodblock printing had achieved since the Chinese Tang dynasty in the 9th century. With written Chinese, the vast amount of written morpheme characters impeded movable type's acceptance and practical use, and was therefore seen as largely unsatisfactory.[116] Furthermore, the European printing press, first invented by Johannes Gutenberg (1398–1468), was eventually wholly adopted as the standard in China, yet the tradition of woodblock printing remains popular in East Asian countries.[116]
Other achievements in science and technology
Shen Kuo described the phenomena of natural
Shen also wrote about advancements in metallurgy. While visiting the iron-producing district at Cizhou in 1075, Shen described the "partial decarburization" method of reforging cast iron under a cold blast, which Hartwell, Needham, and Wertime state is the predecessor of the Bessemer process.[130] Shen was worried about deforestation[d] due to the needs of the iron industry and ink makers using pine soot in the production process, so he suggested for the latter an alternative of petroleum, which he believed was "produced inexhaustibly within the earth".[97][131] Shen used the soot from the smoke of burned petroleum fuel (石油 Shíyóu, "rock oil" as Shen called it) to invent a new, more durable type of writing ink; the Ming dynasty pharmacologist Li Shizhen (1518–1593) wrote that Shen's ink was "lustrous like lacquer, and superior to that made from pinewood lamp-black," or the soot from pinewood.[132][133]
Beliefs and philosophy
Shen Kuo was much in favor of philosophical
Most people can only judge of things by the experiences of ordinary life, but phenomena outside the scope of this are really quite numerous. How insecure it is to investigate natural principles using only the light of common knowledge, and subjective ideas.[138]
In his commentary on the ancient Confucian philosopher
In the "Strange Happenings" passage of the Dream Pool Essays, Shen offered accounts of an
Art criticism
As an art critic, Shen criticized the paintings of Li Cheng (919–967) for failing to observe the principle of "seeing the small from the viewpoint of the large" in portraying buildings and the like.[143] He praised the works of Dong Yuan (c. 934–c. 962); he noted that although a close-up view of Dong's work would create the impression that his brush techniques were cursory, seen from afar his landscape paintings would give the impression of grand, resplendent, and realistic scenery.[144][145][146] In addition, Shen's writing on Dong's artworks represents the earliest known reference to the Jiangnan style of painting.[147] In his "Song on Painting" and in his Dream Pool Essays, Shen praised the creative artworks of the Tang painter Wang Wei (701–761); Shen noted that Wang was unique in that he "penetrated into the mysterious reason and depth of creative activity," but was criticized by others for not conforming his paintings to reality, such as his painting with a banana tree growing in a snowy, wintry landscape.[148][149][150]
Written works
Much of Shen Kuo's written work was probably purged under the leadership of minister Cai Jing (1046–1126), who revived the New Policies of Wang Anshi, although he set out on a campaign of attrition to destroy or radically alter the written work of his predecessors and especially Conservative enemies.[151] For example, only six of Shen's books remain, and four of these have been significantly altered since the time they were penned by the author.[152]
In modern times, the best attempt at a complete list and summary of Shen's writing was an appendix written by Hu Daojing in his standard edition of Brush Talks, written in 1956.[153]
Dream Pool Essays
Shen Kuo's Dream Pool Essays consists of some 507 separate essays exploring a wide range of subjects.[154] It was Shen's ultimate attempt to comprehend and describe a multitude of various aspects of nature, science, and reality, and all the practical and profound curiosities found in the world. The literal translation of the title, Dream Brook Brush Talks, refers to his Dream Brook estate, where he spent the last years of his life. About the title, he is quoted as saying: "Because I had only my writing brush and ink slab to converse with, I call it Brush Talks."[e]
The book was originally 30 chapters long, yet an unknown Chinese author's edition of 1166 edited and reorganized the work into 26 chapters.[155]
Other written works
Although the Dream Pool Essays is certainly his most extensive and important work, Shen Kuo wrote other books as well. In 1075, Shen Kuo wrote the Xining Fengyuan Li (熙寧奉元曆; The Oblatory Epoch astronomical system of the Splendid Peace reign period), which was lost, but listed in a 7th chapter of a Song dynasty bibliography.[156] This was the official report of Shen Kuo on his reforms of the Chinese calendar, which were only partially adopted by the Song court's official calendar system.[156] During his years of retirement from governmental service, Shen Kuo compiled a formulary known as the Liang Fang (良方; Good medicinal formulas).[157] Around the year 1126 it was combined with a similar collection by the famous Su Shi (1037–1101), who was ironically a political opponent to Shen Kuo's faction of Reformers and New Policies supporters at court,[157] yet it was known that Shen Kuo and Su Shi were nonetheless friends and associates.[158] Shen wrote the Mengqi Wanghuai Lu (夢溪忘懷錄; Record of longings forgotten at Dream Brook), which was also compiled during Shen's retirement. This book was a treatise in the working since his youth on rural life and ethnographic accounts of living conditions in the isolated mountain regions of China.[159] Only quotations of it survive in the Shuo Fu (說郛) collection, which mostly describe the agricultural implements and tools used by rural people in high mountain regions. Shen Kuo also wrote the Changxing Ji (長興集; Collected Literary Works of [the Viscount of] Changxing). However, this book was without much doubt a posthumous collection, including various poems, prose, and administrative documents written by Shen.[159] By the 15th century (during the Ming dynasty), this book was reprinted, yet only the 19th chapter remained.[159] This chapter was reprinted in 1718, yet poorly edited.[159] Finally, in the 1950s the author Hu Daojing supplemented this small yet valuable work with additions of other scattered poems written by Shen, in the former's Collection of Shen Kua's Extant Poetry (Shanghai: Shang-hai Shu-tian, 1958).[159] In the tradition of the popular Song era literary category of 'travel record literature' ('youji wenxue'),[160] Shen Kuo also wrote the Register of What Not to Forget, a traveler's guide to what type of carriage is suitable for a journey, the proper foods one should bring, the special clothing one should bring, and many other items.[161]
In his Sequel to Numerous Things Revealed, the Song author Cheng Dachang (1123–1195) noted that stanzas prepared by Shen Kuo for military victory celebrations were later written down and published by Shen.[162] This includes a short poem "Song of Triumph" by Shen Kuo, who uses the musical instrument mawei huqin ('horse-tail barbarian stringed instrument' or 'horse-tail fiddle'[163]) of the northwestern Inner Asian nomads as a metaphor for prisoners-of-war led by Song troops:
:The mawei huqin followed the Han chariot,
- Its music sounding of complaint to the Khan.
- Do not bend the bow to shoot the goose within the clouds,
- The returning goose bears no letter.
— Shen Kuo[162]
Historian Jonathan Stock notes that the bent bow described in the poem above represents the arched bow used to play the huqin, while the sound of the instrument itself represented the discontent expressed by the prisoners-of-war with their defeated khan.[162]
Legacy
Praise, critique, and criticism
In the Routledge Curzon Encyclopedia of Confucianism, Xinzhong Yao states that Shen Kuo's legacy was tainted by his eager involvement in Wang Anshi's New Policies reforms, his actions criticized in the later traditional histories.[1] However, Shen's reputation as a polymath has been well regarded. Joseph Needham stated that Shen Kuo was "one of the greatest scientific minds in Chinese history."[164] The French sinologist Jacques Gernet is of the opinion that Shen possessed an "amazingly modern mind."[165] Yao states of Shen's thorough recording of natural sciences in his Dream Pool Essays:
We must regard Shen Kuo's collection as an indispensable primary source attesting to the unmatched level of attainment achieved by Chinese science prior to the twelfth century.[166]
However, Toby E. Huff writes that Shen Kuo's "scattered set" of writings lacks clear-cut organization and "theoretical acuteness," that is,
Burial and posthumous honors
Upon his death, Shen Kuo was interred in a tomb in
In addition to his tomb, Shen Kuo's Mengxi garden estate, his former two-acre (8,000 m2) property in Zhenjiang, was restored by the government in 1985.[170] However, the renovated Mengxi Garden is only part of the original of Shen Kuo's time.[171] A Qing dynasty-era hall built on the site is now used as the main admissions gate.[170] In the Memorial Hall of the gardens, there is a large painting depicting the original garden of Shen Kuo's time, including wells, green bamboo groves, stone-paved paths, and decorated walls of the original halls.[171] In this exhibition hall there stands a 1.4 m (4.6 ft) tall statue of Shen Kuo sitting on a platform, along with centuries-old published copies of his Dream Pool Essays in glass cabinets, one of which is from Japan.[171] At the garden estate there are also displayed marble banners, statues of Shen Kuo, and a model of an armillary sphere; a small museum gallery depicts Shen's various achievements.[170]
The
References
Notes
- ^ See the article Society of the Song dynasty
- ^ Refer to the Partisans and factions, reformers and conservatives section of the article History of the Song dynasty.
- ^ For more, see Architecture of the Song dynasty
- ^ For deforestation due to the Song dynasty iron industry and efforts to curb it, refer to Economy of the Song dynasty
- ^ From his biography in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography (New York 1970–1990)
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- ^ Sivin (1995), III, 34–35.
- ^ Sivin (1995), III, 35.
- ^ Needham (1986), Volume 3, 482.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), 148.
- ^ Dong (2000), 69. (Professor Zhang Longqiao of the Chinese Department of Peking Teachers College, who popularized this account in Beijing's Guang Ming Daily on February 18, 1979, in an article called "Could It Be That A Visitor From Outer Space Visited China Long Ago?", states is "a clue that a flying craft from some other planet once landed somewhere near Yangzhou in China.")
- ^ Dong (2000), 69–70.
- ^ Dong (2000), 70–71.
- ^ Needham (1986), Volume 4, 115.
- ^ Stanley-Baker (1977), 23.
- ^ Barnhart (1970), 25.
- ^ Li (1965), 61.
- ^ Barnhart (1970), 24.
- ^ Li (1965), 37–38, Footnote 98.
- ^ Li (1974), 149.
- ^ Parker (1999), 175.
- ^ Chen Dengyuan, cited in Sivin (1995), III, 44.
- ^ Sivin (1995), III, 44–45.
- ^ Sivin (1995), III, 44.
- ^ Bodde (1991), 86.
- ^ Sivin (1995), III, 45.
- ^ a b Sivin (1995), III, 46.
- ^ a b Sivin (1995), III, 47.
- ^ Needham (1986), Volume 1, 137.
- ^ a b c d e Sivin (1995), III, 48.
- ^ Hargett (1985), 67.
- ^ Hargett (1985), 71.
- ^ a b c Stock (1993), 94.
- ^ Stock (1993), 108.
- ^ nn (1986), 226–227.
- ^ Gernet (1996), 338.
- ^ Yao (2003), 545.
- ^ a b c d Huff (2003), 303.
- ^ Sivin (1988), 59.
- ^ a b c Yuhang Cultural Network (October 2003). Shen Kuo's Tomb Archived 2014-05-02 at the Wayback Machine The Yuhang District of Hangzhou Cultural Broadcasting Press and Publications Bureau. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
- ^ a b c Zhenjiang.gov (October 2006). Talking Park Archived 2007-07-07 at the Wayback Machine The Zhenjiang municipal government office. Retrieved on 2007-05-07.
- ^ a b c The Zhenjiang Foreign Experts Bureau (June 2002). Mengxi Garden Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine The Zhenjiang Foreign Experts Bureau. Retrieved on 2007-05-07.
- ^ "2027 Shen Guo". IAU Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 2018-10-01.
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External links