Srinagar
Srinagar | ||
---|---|---|
City | ||
From the top, clockwise: Houseboats on Precipitation 710 millimetres (28 in) | | |
Avg. summer temperature | 23.3 °C (73.9 °F) | |
Avg. winter temperature | 3.2 °C (37.8 °F) | |
Website | www | |
Srinagar (English: /ˈsriːnəɡər/ , Kashmiri pronunciation: [siriːnagar]) is a city in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region.[1] It is the largest city and summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir, which is an Indian-administered union territory. It lies in the Kashmir Valley along the banks of the Jhelum River, and the shores of Dal Lake and Anchar Lakes, between the Hari Parbat and Shankaracharya hills. The city is known for its natural environment, various gardens, waterfronts and houseboats. It is also known for traditional Kashmiri handicrafts like the Kashmir shawl (made of pashmina and cashmere wool), papier-mâché, wood carving, carpet weaving, and jewel making, as well as for dried fruits.[11][12] It is the second-largest metropolitan area in the Himalayas (after Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal).
Founded in the 6th century during the rule of the Gonanda dynasty according to the Rajatarangini, the city took on the name of an earlier capital thought to have been founded by the Mauryas in its vicinity. The city remained the most important capital of the Kashmir Valley under the Hindu dynasties, and was a major centre of learning. During the 14th–16th centuries the city's old town saw major expansions, particularly under the Shah Mir dynasty, whose kings used various parts of it as their capitals. It became the spiritual centre of Kashmir, and attracted several Sufi preachers. It also started to emerge as a hub of shawl weaving and other Kashmiri handicrafts. In the late 16th century the city became part of the Mughal Empire, many of whose emperors used it as their summer resort. Many Mughal gardens were built in the city and around Dal lake during this time, of which Shalimar and Nishat are the most well-known.
After passing through the hands of the Afghan Durranis and the Sikhs in the late 18th and early 19th century, it eventually became the summer capital of the Dogra kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir in 1846. The city became a popular tourist destination among Europeans and Indian elites during this time, with several hotels and its iconic houseboats being built. In 1952, the city became the summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir, a region administered by India as a state, with Jammu being its winter capital. It was the flashpoint of violence during the 1990s and early 2000s insurgency in the region. In 2019, it became the summer capital of a smaller region which is administered by India as a union territory, after the former state's reorganisation.
Name
The earliest records, such as Kalhana's Rajatarangini, mentions the Sanskrit name shri-nagara which have been interpreted distinctively by scholars in two ways: one being "The city of "Shri" (श्री), the Hindu goddess of wealth, meaning "City of Lakshmi"[13][14][15][16][17][18] and other being sūrya-nagar, meaning "City of the Surya" (trans) "City of Sun."[19][20][21][22] The name was used for an older capital in the vicinity of the present-day city, before being used for it.[23] Between the 14th and 19th centuries, and especially during Mughal rule, the city was also referred to simply as Kashmir or Shahr-i-Kashmir (lit. 'City of Kashmir').[24]
History
Early history
According to the
Sultanate period
Mughal rule
The
Afghan and Sikh rule
In 1753, Kashmir passed into the hands of the Afghan Durrani Empire. The Afghans undertook reconstructions in Srinagar and built the palace at Shergarhi at the site of a pre-existing ancient palace, as well as the fort atop Hari Parbat.[48] However, contemporary accounts describe the city as filthy and deteriorating, and it also saw worsening inter-community relations during Afghan rule, with repeated Hindu-Muslim and Shia-Sunni riots, and state persecution of Pandits.[49] In 1819, the Sikh Empire assumed control of Kashmir. Under them, Srinagar, the old name of the city, was restored. The situation in the city did not improve much under Sikh rule, and the city remained in a state of decay.[50] They also imposed several restrictions on Muslim religious expression, and closed the gates of the Jamia Mosque, which remained closed until 1843. A Shia-Sunni riot happened in the city in 1837.[49]
Dogra rule
With the establishment of Dogra rule following the 1846 Treaty of Amritsar, Srinagar became the capital of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. Taxes were increased and the production of silk, saffron, paper, tobacco, wine, and salt, as well as the sale of grain, became the monopoly of the state. It was a capital offence for a Muslim to kill a cow as late as the 1920s; later, the penalty was reduced to ten years of imprisonment and still later to seven years (Section 219 of Ranbir Penal Code).[51] The Dogras found Srinagar deteriorating, filthy and overcrowded.[52] The city used to see several break-outs of cholera, as well as earthquakes, floods, fires and famines. The famine of 1877–79 is said to have halved the city's population.[53] Consequently, due to the famine and forced labour in the villages, a considerable number of people migrated to Srinagar.[54]
The
Srinagar emerged as the hub of political activity within the Kashmir valley during later Dogra rule. Kashmiris at large despised the Dogra rule and considered the dynasty an "alien rule".
Partition and Independence
In 1947, after the princely state's
In 1963–1964, the relic at the Hazratbal Shrine in Srinagar briefly disappeared, causing political turmoil.[69] Following this, the shrine was reconstructed between 1968 and 1979 in a Mughal-inspired style.[70] In 1989, Srinagar became the focus of the
Geography
The city is located on both the sides of the Jhelum River, called Vyath in Kashmir. The river passes through the city and meanders through the valley, moving onward and deepening in the Wular Lake. The city is known for its nine old bridges, connecting the two parts of the city.
There are a number of lakes and swamps in and around the city. These include the Dal, the Nigeen, the Anchar, Khushal Sar, Gil Sar and Hokersar.
Hokersar is a wetland situated near Srinagar. Thousands of migratory birds come to Hokersar from Siberia and other regions in the winter season. Migratory birds from Siberia and Central Asia use wetlands in Kashmir as their transitory camps between September and October and again around spring. These wetlands play a vital role in sustaining a large population of wintering, staging and breeding birds.
Hokersar is 14 km (8.7 mi) north of Srinagar, and is a world class wetland spread over 13.75 km2 (5.31 sq mi) including lake and
Birds found in Hokersar are migratory
Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, Srinagar has a four-season humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with hot summers and cool winters. The valley is surrounded by the Himalayas on all sides. Due to influence from the Himalayan rain shadow and western disturbances, Srinagar has year-round precipitation; the spring season is the wettest while autumn is the driest. Winters are colder than most areas with monsoon climates due to this and its elevation,[82] with daily maximum temperatures averaging 7.1 °C (44.8 °F) in January, and dropping below freezing point at night. Moderate to heavy snowfall occurs in winter and the highway connecting Srinagar with the rest of India faces frequent blockades due to icy roads, landslides and avalanches. Summers are warm to hot with a July daytime average of 30.0 °C (86.0 °F). The average annual rainfall is around 697.5 millimetres (27.46 in).
The highest temperature reliably recorded is 38.3 °C (100.9 °F) recorded on 10 July 1946, and the lowest is −20.0 °C (−4.0 °F) recorded on 6 February 1895.[83]
Climate data for Srinagar (1991–2020, extremes 1893–2020) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 17.2 (63.0) |
20.6 (69.1) |
28.3 (82.9) |
31.1 (88.0) |
36.4 (97.5) |
37.8 (100.0) |
38.3 (100.9) |
36.7 (98.1) |
35.0 (95.0) |
33.9 (93.0) |
24.5 (76.1) |
18.3 (64.9) |
38.3 (100.9) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 7.1 (44.8) |
10.5 (50.9) |
15.5 (59.9) |
20.6 (69.1) |
24.7 (76.5) |
28.5 (83.3) |
30.0 (86.0) |
29.7 (85.5) |
27.6 (81.7) |
23.0 (73.4) |
15.9 (60.6) |
9.9 (49.8) |
20.2 (68.4) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 2.5 (36.5) |
5.5 (41.9) |
10.0 (50.0) |
14.3 (57.7) |
18.0 (64.4) |
21.6 (70.9) |
24.2 (75.6) |
23.7 (74.7) |
20.2 (68.4) |
14.4 (57.9) |
8.3 (46.9) |
4.0 (39.2) |
13.9 (57.0) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −1.9 (28.6) |
0.7 (33.3) |
4.3 (39.7) |
7.9 (46.2) |
11.2 (52.2) |
15.0 (59.0) |
18.4 (65.1) |
17.8 (64.0) |
13.1 (55.6) |
6.2 (43.2) |
1.2 (34.2) |
−1.6 (29.1) |
7.5 (45.5) |
Record low °C (°F) | −14.4 (6.1) |
−20.0 (−4.0) |
−6.9 (19.6) |
0.0 (32.0) |
1.0 (33.8) |
7.2 (45.0) |
10.3 (50.5) |
9.5 (49.1) |
4.4 (39.9) |
−1.7 (28.9) |
−7.8 (18.0) |
−12.8 (9.0) |
−20.0 (−4.0) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 63.6 (2.50) |
85.0 (3.35) |
104.6 (4.12) |
91.8 (3.61) |
63.5 (2.50) |
46.4 (1.83) |
64.0 (2.52) |
64.5 (2.54) |
37.4 (1.47) |
21.8 (0.86) |
27.7 (1.09) |
27.2 (1.07) |
697.5 (27.46) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.3 mm) | 8.5 | 9.9 | 11 | 11.1 | 10.9 | 8.2 | 9.2 | 8.9 | 5.5 | 3.4 | 3.7 | 4.6 | 94.9 |
Average rainy days | 5.4 | 6.0 | 7.2 | 7.0 | 5.9 | 4.1 | 5.0 | 5.4 | 3.1 | 2.0 | 2.2 | 2.6 | 55.9 |
Average relative humidity (%) (at 17:30 IST )
|
67 | 59 | 52 | 49 | 49 | 47 | 53 | 55 | 52 | 54 | 62 | 68 | 55 |
Average dew point °C (°F) | −2 (28) |
1 (34) |
3 (37) |
7 (45) |
11 (52) |
14 (57) |
17 (63) |
17 (63) |
13 (55) |
8 (46) |
3 (37) |
0 (32) |
8 (46) |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 74.4 | 101.7 | 136.4 | 189.0 | 238.7 | 246.0 | 241.8 | 226.3 | 228.0 | 226.3 | 186.0 | 108.5 | 2,203.1 |
Mean daily sunshine hours | 2.4 | 3.6 | 4.4 | 6.3 | 7.7 | 8.2 | 7.8 | 7.3 | 7.6 | 7.3 | 6.2 | 3.5 | 6.0 |
Average ultraviolet index | 3 | 5 | 7 | 10 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 9 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 8 |
Source 1: India Meteorological Department[84][85] NOAA(precipitation-extremes[83])Time and Date (dewpoints, 2005–2015)[86] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (sun 1945–1988),[87] Tokyo Climate Center (mean temperatures 1991–2020)[88] Weather Atlas,[89] Ultraviolet[90] |
Economy
In November 2011, the City Mayors Foundation – an advocacy think tank – announced that Srinagar was the 92nd fastest growing urban areas in the world in terms of economic growth, based on actual data from 2006 onwards and projections to 2020.[91]
Tourism
Srinagar is one of several places that have been called the "
Srinagar has some
The Sher Garhi Palace houses administrative buildings from the state government.[96] Another palace of the Maharajas, the Gulab Bhavan, has now become the Lalit Grand Palace hotel.[97]
The Shankaracharya Temple lies on a hill top in the middle of the city.[98]
Places of Interest
In and Around Srinagar
- Dal Lake and its Houseboats
- Nigeen Lake
- Anchar Lake and Shallabugh Wetland, a Ramsar site
- Hokersar Wetland Ramsar Site
- Shalimar Garden
- Nishat Garden
- Chashme Shahi Garden
- Pari Mahal
- Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Botanical Garden
- Hari Parbat
- Dachigam National Park
- Shankaracharya Temple
- Hazratbal Shrine
- Jama Masjid
- Khanqah-e-Moula
- Pathar Mosque
- Aali Mosque
- Burzahom Neolithic and Chalcolithic Site
- Zain-ul-Abidin's Tomb
- Sher Garhi Palace
- Gulab Bhavan
- Meruvarddhanaswami Temple, Pandrethan
-
Dal Lake in winter
-
Floating vegetable market on Dal Lake, the only of its kind in India
-
Chashme Shahi Mughal Garden
-
Hari Parbat Fort
Near Srinagar
- Wular Lake, a Ramsar site – 46 km.
- Manasbal Lake – 25 km.
- Hygam Wetland Conservation Reserve, a Ramsar site – 34 km.
- Pahalgam – 85 km.
- Gulmarg – 52 km.
- Anantnag – 54 km.
- Martand Sun Temple, near Anantnag – 62 km.
- Achabal Gardens, near Anantnag – 63 km.
- Verinag – 86 km.
Government and politics
The city is run by the
Stray dog controversy
This section needs to be updated.(December 2023) |
Srinagar's city government attracted brief international attention in March 2008 when it announced a mass poisoning program aimed at eliminating the city's population of stray dogs.[99] Officials estimate that 100,000 stray dogs roam the streets of the city, which has a human population of just under 900,000. In a survey conducted by an NGO, it was found that some residents welcomed this program, saying the city was overrun by dogs, while critics contended that more humane methods should be used to deal with the animals.
The situation has become alarming with local news reports coming up at frequent intervals highlighting people, especially children being mauled by street dogs.[100]
Demographics
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1901 | 122,618 | — |
1911 | 126,344 | +3.0% |
1921 | 141,735 | +12.2% |
1931 | 173,573 | +22.5% |
1941 | 207,787 | +19.7% |
1951 | 246,522 | +18.6% |
1961 | 285,257 | +15.7% |
1971 | 415,271 | +45.6% |
1981 | 594,775 | +43.2% |
1991 | — | |
2001 | 935,764 | — |
2011 | 1,180,570 | +26.2% |
Source: [102] |
As of 2011 census Srinagar urban agglomeration had 1,273,312 population.[103] Both the city and the urban agglomeration has average literacy rate of approximately 70%.[103][104] The child population of both the city and the urban agglomeration is approximately 12% of the total population.[103] Males constituted 53.0% and females 47% of the population. The sex ratio in the city area is 888 females per 1000 males, whereas in the urban agglomeration it is 880 per 1,000.[103][105] The predominant religion of Srinagar is Islam with 96% of the population being Muslim. Hindus constitute the second largest religious group representing 2.75% of the population. The remaining population constitutes Sikhs, Buddhist and Jains.[106][107] Kashmiri Hindus constituted 21.9% of Srinagar's population as per 1891 census and 2.75% as per 2011 census.[74]
Transport
Road
The city is served by many highways, including
Air
Rail
Srinagar is a station on the 119 km (74 mi) long
There are proposals to develop a metro system in the city.[111] The feasibility report for the Srinagar Metro is planned to be carried out by Delhi Metro Rail Corporation.[112]
Cable car
Srinagar Cable Car | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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|
In December 2013, the 594m cable car allowing people to travel to the shrine of the Sufi saint Hamza Makhdoom on Hari Parbat was unveiled. The project is run by the Jammu and Kashmir Cable Car Corporation (JKCCC), and has been envisioned for 25 years. An investment of 300 million INR was made, and it is the second cable car in Kashmir after the Gulmarg Gondola.[113]
Boat
Whilst popular since the 7th century, water transport is now mainly confined to Dal Lake, where shikaras (wooden boats) are used for local transport and tourism. There are efforts to revive transportation on the River Jhelum.[114]
Culture
Like the territory of Jammu and Kashmir, Srinagar too has a distinctive blend of cultural heritage. Holy places in and around the city depict the historical cultural and religious diversity of the city as well as the Kashmir valley.
Places of worship
There are many religious holy places in Srinagar. They include:
- Hazratbal Shrine, only domed mosque in the city.[115]
- Jama Masjid, Srinagar, one of the oldest mosques in Kashmir
- Khanqah-e-Moula, first Islamic centre in Kashmir
- Aali Masjid, in Eidgah Locality
- Hari Parbat hill hosts shrine of Sharika Mata temple
- Zeashta Devi Shrine a holy shrine for Kashmiri Hindus
- Shankaracharya temple
- Gurdwara Chatti Patshahi
- Pathar Masjid
- All Saints Church, Srinagar
- Holy Family Catholic Church (Srinagar)
Additional structures include the
The Sheikh Bagh Cemetery is a Christian cemetery located in Srinagar that dates from the British colonial era. The oldest grave in the cemetery is that of a British colonel from the 9th Lancers of 1850 and the cemetery is valued for the variety of persons buried there which provides an insight into the perils faced by British colonisers in India..
-
Pathar Masjid
-
Gurdwara Chatti Patsahi
Performing arts
Education
Srinagar is home to various premiere Higher Education Institutes including the
Schools
- Tyndale Biscoe School
- Presentation Convent Higher Secondary School
- Burn Hall School
- Khalsa High School, Srinagar
- Mallinson Girls School
- Delhi Public School, Srinagar
- Woodlands House School
- Little Angels High School, Srinagar
- Green Valley Educational Institute
Medical colleges
- Government Medical College, Srinagar
- SMHS Hospital
- Sher-i-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences
Universities
- University of Kashmir
- Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir
- Central University of Kashmir
- Cluster University of Srinagar
General degree colleges
Broadcasting
Srinagar is broadcasting hub for radio channels in UT which are
Sports
The city is home to the
Notable people
- Agha Shahid Ali (1949–2001)
- Joanna Lumley (1946–present)
- Bakshi Abdur Rashid (1923–1977)
- Reshma (1951/1952–2022), singer and transgender activist
- Pandit Jia Lal Saraf, Sanskrit scholar
See also
- Kashmir conflict
- Downtown (Srinagar)
- Kashmir Shaivism
- List of State Protected Monuments in Jammu and Kashmir
- List of colleges in Srinagar
- Lal Chowk
- Jammu and Kashmir Yateem Foundation
References
- ^ Historian Mohammad Ishaq Khan states that this is due Srinagar's central location within the valley and the larger neighbourhood, and due to the presence of various water bodies around the city which provided protection.[32]
- ^ The name, however, did not become obsolete and finds mention in several contemporary sources.[36]
- ^ These were jesuit priests Jerome Xavier and Bento de Góis.[44]
- Francois Bernier and priests Ippolito Desideri and Manoel Freyre.[47]
- ^ due weightin the coverage. Although "controlled" and "held" are also applied neutrally to the names of the disputants or to the regions administered by them, as evidenced in sources (f) through (h) below, "held" is also considered politicised usage, as is the term "occupied," (see (i) below).
(a) Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent, Encyclopaedia Britannica, retrieved 15 August 2019 (subscription required) Quote: "Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent ... has been the subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947. The northern and western portions are administered by Pakistan and comprise three areas: Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan, the last two being part of a territory called the Northern Areas. Administered by India are the southern and southeastern portions, which constitute the state of Jammu and Kashmir but are slated to be split into two union territories.";
(b) Pletcher, Kenneth, Aksai Chin, Plateau Region, Asia, Encyclopaedia Britannica, retrieved 16 August 2019 (subscription required) Quote: "Aksai Chin, Chinese (Pinyin) Aksayqin, portion of the Kashmir region, at the northernmost extent of the Indian subcontinent in south-central Asia. It constitutes nearly all the territory of the Chinese-administered sector of Kashmir that is claimed by India to be part of the Ladakh area of Jammu and Kashmir state.";
(c) "Kashmir", Encyclopedia Americana, Scholastic Library Publishing, 2006, p. 328,ISBN 978-1-84904-621-3Quote:"Some politicised terms also are used to describe parts of J&K. These terms include the words 'occupied' and 'held'." - ^ "Srinagar City". kvksrinagar.org. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
- ^ "Srinagar Updates". The Tribune. 27 July 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
- ^ "Srinagar Metropolitan Region" (PDF). sdasrinagar.com. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
- ^ "Srinagar Master Plan". crosstownnews.in. 21 February 2019. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
- 2011 Census of India. Government of India. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
- ^ "2011 census of India" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 October 2013. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
- ^ Pathak, Analiza (2 September 2020). "Hindi, Kashmiri and Dogri to be official languages of Jammu and Kashmir, Cabinet approves Bill". Retrieved 8 September 2020.
- ^ "The Jammu and Kashmir Official Languages Act, 2020" (PDF). The Gazette of India. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
- ^ "Parliament passes JK Official Languages Bill, 2020". Rising Kashmir. 23 September 2020. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
- ^ "Here's how beautiful Srinagar's Dal Lake looks this winter". India Today. 5 January 2018. Archived from the original on 30 January 2018. Retrieved 30 January 2018.
- ^ "District Srinagar :: Official Website". srinagar.nic.in. Archived from the original on 4 February 2006. Retrieved 30 January 2018.
- ISBN 978-81-7488-051-2.
Shri Nagar or, as it is commonly called, Srinagar, is the chief town of the country . ' Shri ' means beauty or wealth of knowledge and ' nagar ' a city
- ^ Kashmir. 1953. p. 36.
Shri ' is said to be another name for Laxmi, the Goddess of Wealth and Beauty and ' nagari ' means the city . Hence ' Shrinagar ' is the city of wealth and beauty .
- ISBN 978-81-7648-350-6.
The name Srinagar which means the city of Sri or Lakshmi appears to have been assigned to the capital to commemorate the Buddhist Monastery built by Ashoka between Pandrethan and the nearby steep hill side at a distance of 2 miles from ...
- ^ Khan 1978, p.2:"According to Kalhana, ancient Kashmir has had a number of capitals. The most important of these ancient cities was Srinagari, which was founded by Asoka in 250 B.C. 3 Srinagari, the city of Sri, an appellation of the goddess '. Lakshmi ...".
- ^ Charnock, Richard Stephen (1859). Local Etymology: A Derivative Dictionary of Geographical Names. Houlston and Wright. p. 187.
- ^ Koul, Samsar Chand (1962). Srinagar and Its Environs: Kashmir, India. Lokesh Koul.
Shri Nagar or, as it is commonly called, Srinagar, is the chief town of the country . ' Shri ' means beauty or wealth of knowledge and ' nagar ' a city . In ancient times this city was one of the chief seats of learning in Asia
- ISBN 978-81-206-1630-1.
- ^ M. Monier Monier–Williams, "Śrīnagar", in: The Great Sanskrit–English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1899
- ^ Sufi, G. M. D. (1974). Kashīr, Being a History of Kashmir from the Earliest Times to Our Own. Light & Life Publishers. p. 42.
SRINAGAR * or Suryea Nagar, the City of the Sun, built by Rajah Pravarasene about the beginning of the 6th century, is the Capital of Kashmir, and a plan of it will be found in Montgomerie's Jamoo and Kashinir Map . It is situated about ...
- ^ Rabbani 1981, p. 32: "Old Srinagar Kalhana, who lived in the beginning of the twelfth century, mentions in his Rajtarangni the city of Srinagar, a city in the south – east ... Shri here does not mean Surya or the son and it is a mistake to call Srinagar, the city of sun ."
- ^ Kaul 2018, p.157: "(in footnote) In reality, it is the name Srinagar that stuck but the location of the modern-day Srinagar, the capital of the state of Jammu and Kashmir, is at the site of Pravarapura that was founded by King Pravarasena circa 6th century CE.".
- ^ Khan 1978, pp. 8–9.
- ^ a b Wani & Wani 2023, p. 75.
- ^ Kaul 2018, p. 110.
- ^ Hamdani 2021, p. 22.
- ^ Khan 1978, p. 3–4.
- ^ Wani & Wani 2023, p. 159.
- ^ Khan 1978, p. 3.
- ^ Rabbani 1981, p. 33.
- ^ Khan 1978, p. 6–7.
- ^ Rabbani 1981, p. 33–35.
- ^ Kaul 2018, pp. 124–125.
- ^ a b Khan 1978, p. 8.
- ^ a b Khan 1978, p. 9.
- ^ Khan 1978, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Hamdani 2021, p. 83.
- ^ Hamdani2021, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Khan 1978, p. 10.
- ^ Hamdani 2021, p. 65–66.
- ^ Khan 1978, p. 11.
- ^ Khan 1978, p. 12.
- ^ a b c Khan 1978, p. 13.
- ^ Hamdani 2021, p. 93–95.
- ISBN 978-1-107-18197-7
- ^ Khan 1978, p. 15.
- ^ Khan 1978, p. 16.
- ^ a b Hamdani 2021, pp. 167–169.
- ^ Khan 1978, pp. 16–17.
- ^
Dogra raj in Kashmir. FrontLine8 November 2017.
- ^ Khan 1978, pp. 18–20.
- ^ Khan 1978, pp. 20–24.
- ^ Khan 1978, pp. 32.
- ISBN 978-0-19-012141-9
- ^ Bazaz 1941, pp. 91.
- ^ Zutshi 2019, p. 54.
- ^ Khan 1978, p. 27.
- ^ Khan 1978, p. 27–28.
- ISBN 978-1-80073-029-8
- ^ Khan 1978, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Khan 1978, pp. 39–40.
- ^ Zutshi 2019, p. 55.
- ^ Bazaz 1941, pp. 90.
- ^ Zutshi 2019, pp. 59–62.
- ^ Zutshi 2019, p. 99.
- ^ Zutshi 2019, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Whitehead, Andrew (24 October 2017). "Kashmir's Forgotten Women's Militia". The Wire. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
- ^ Zutshi 2019, p. 114.
- ^ Hamdani 2021, p. 196.
- ISBN 978-0-674-02855-5.
As the uprising broke out across the Valley in early 1990, approximately one hundred thousand Pandits left their Valley homes for Jammu city and Delhi in a few weeks in February and March, in one of the most controversial episodes of the war in Kashmir."
- ISBN 978-1-4438-7483-0.
- ^ https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/31511/download/34692/29233_1981_POR.pdf
- ^ JSTOR saoa.crl.25352828.
- ISBN 1860648983
- ^ "Muslims wage huge Kashmir protest". Chicago Tribune. 23 August 2008. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 1 March 2013.
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Bibliography
- Hamdani, Hakim Sameer (2021), The Syncretic Traditions of Islamic Religious Architecture of Kashmir (Early 14th–18th Century), Routledge, ISBN 978-0-367-55009-7
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- Wani, Muhammad Ashraf; Wani, Aman Ashraf (2023), The Making of Early Kashmir: Intercultural Networks and Identity Formation, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-032-15830-3
- ISBN 978-8-186-71457-7
External links
- Srinagar travel guide from Wikivoyage
- Srinagar district administration
- Official website of Jammu and Kashmir Archived 15 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- Delhi to Srinagar train Archived 8 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine