Yahya Khan
Muhammad Musa | |
|---|---|
| Succeeded by | Gul Hassan |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan 4 February 1917 |
| Branch/service |  British Indian Army Pakistan Army |
| Years of service | 1939–1971 |
| Rank |  General |
| Unit | 4th Battalion/10th Baluch Regiment Now 11th Baloch Regiment (S/No. PA–98) |
| Commands | C-in-C, Pakistan Army
|
| Battles/wars |
|
| Awards | |
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Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan
Khan was commissioned to the
Yahya Khan's presidency oversaw
Khan's short regime was regarded as the leading cause of the breakup of Pakistan. He is viewed negatively in both Bangladesh, being considered the chief-architect of the genocide, and in Pakistan.
Early life and education
Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan was born in Chakwal, Punjab, British India,[5] in a Qizilbash family on 4 February 1917, according to the references written by Russian sources.[6][7] His family descended from the elite soldier class of Iranian conqueror Nader Shah.[8] He and his family were of Pashtun origin.[9][10][11][12][13][14]
Few Pakistanis knew anything about Yahya Khan when he was vaulted into the presidency two years ago. The stocky, bushy–browed Pathan had been the army chief of staff since 1966...
According to Indian journalist Dewan Barindranath's book Private Life of Yahya Khan (published in 1974), Yahya's father, Saadat Ali Khan, worked in the Indian Imperial Police, in the Punjab province. He joined as a head constable and retired as a deputy superintendent. He was posted in Chakwal, Punjab, British India, when Yahya Khan was born. He was rewarded with the title of Khan Sahib for having removed the bodies of many freedom fighters, including Bhaghat Singh, as they were executed in secrecy and the British needed to get rid of the corpses without attracting much attention, operations Saadat Ali Khan carried out "efficiently and faithfully."[16]
Yahya's father was originally from Peshawar.[17]
Yahya studied in the prestigious
Military service
Career before Pakistan's separation
Yahya Khan was commissioned into the
Yahya Khan served in World War II as a lieutenant and later captain in the 4th Infantry Division (India). He served in Iraq, Italy and North Africa. He was a POW in Italy before returning to India.[8]
After the birth of Pakistan
After the partition of India, he decided to join the Pakistan Army in 1947, he had already reached to the rank of major (acting lieutenant-colonel). In this year he was instrumental in not letting the Indian officers shift books from the famous library of the Pakistan Army Staff College (now Command and Staff College) at Quetta,[8] where Yahya was posted as an instructor at the time of the partition of India. He renamed the 'Command and Staff College' from 'Army Staff College'.[5] At the age of 34, he was promoted to Brigadier, then the youngest Brigadier of Pakistan.[8] And then he was appointed as commander of the 105th Independent Brigade that was deployed in LoC ceasefire region in Jammu and Kashmir in 1951–1952.[18]
Later Yahya Khan, as Vice Chief of General Staff, was selected to head of the army's planning board set up by
During these years, Yahya was also tasked in civil and administrative matters, including being the Administrator of the Islamabad Capital Project, "the job for major execution" being given to him.[19]
The C-in-C
After the '65 war, Maj. Gen. Yahya Khan was appointed in the
After becoming the commander-in-chief of the army, Yahya energetically started reorganizing the Pakistan Army in 1966.[8] The post-1965 situation saw major organizational and technical changes in the Pakistan Army. Until 1965, it was thought that army divisions could function effectively while getting orders directly from the army's GHQ. This idea failed miserably in the 1965 war, and the need to have intermediate corps headquarters in between the GHQ and the fighting combat divisions was recognized as a foremost operational necessity after the 1965 war. In the 1965 war, the Pakistan Army had only one corps headquarters (the 1 Corps).[21]
Soon after the war had started, the United States had imposed an embargo on military aid to both India and Pakistan. This embargo did not affect the Indian Army but produced major changes in the Pakistan Army's technical composition. US Secretary of State Dean Rusk well summed it up when he said, "Well if you are going to fight, go ahead and fight, but we're not going to pay for it".[22]
Pakistan now turned to China for military aid, and the Chinese tank
Presidency (1969–1971)
A sustained anti-regime mass movement began in the fall of 1968 in West Pakistan.
Rather than resigning and allowing a constitutional transfer of power, Ayub Khan requested that Yahya Khan, Commander-in-Chief of the Army, utilize the military's supra-constitutional authority to declare martial law and take power.[25] On 24 March 1969, Ayub directed a letter to Yahya inviting him to deal with the crisis, as it was "beyond the capacity of [civil] government to deal with the... complex situation."[26] Some sources claim Yahya accepted Ayub's proposal on 25 March.[27][28] On 26 March 1969, General Yahya appeared on national television and announced a state of martial law throughout the entirety of the country. The 1962 constitution was abrogated, the parliament was dissolved, and Ayub's civilian officials were dismissed.[26] In his first nationwide address, Yahya maintained, "I will not tolerate disorder. Let everyone remain at his post."[8][29]
Yahya Khan's new military government featured several active duty military officials:
| Ministers | Portrait | Ministries and departments | Inter-services |
|---|---|---|---|
| General Yahya Khan[30] | Defence |
Pakistan Army
| |
| General Abdul Hamid Khan[30] | Deputy Kashmir Affairs |
Pakistan Army
| |
| Vice-Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan[30] | Deputy Industry |
 Pakistan Navy
| |
| Air-Marshal Nur Khan[30] |  |
Deputy Labour and Science and Technology |
 Pakistan Air Force
|
When Yahya Khan assumed the office on 25 March, he inherited a two-decade constitutional problem of inter-provincial ethnic rivalry between
The American political scientist Lawrence Ziring observed:
Yahya Khan has been widely portrayed as a ruthless uncompromising insensitive and grossly inept leader.... While Yahya cannot escape responsibility for these tragic events, it is also on the record that he did not act alone.... All the major actors of the period were creatures of a historic legacy and a psycho-political milieu which did not lend itself to accommodation and compromise, to bargaining and a reasoned settlement. Nurtured on conspiracy theories, they were all conditioned to act in a manner that neglected agreeable solutions and promoted violent judgments.[31]
Yahya Khan attempted to solve Pakistan's constitutional and inter-provincial rivalry problems once he took over power from Ayub Khan in March 1969. His earlier initiatives were directed at establishing the National Security Council (NSC), with Major-General Ghulam Omar as its first advisor.[32][33] It was formed to analyse and prepare assessments towards issues of political and national security.[32]
In 1969, President Yahya also promulgated the Legal Framework Order, 1970, which disestablished the One Unit Scheme that had formed West Pakistan and returned the provinces of West Pakistan to their pre-1955 configuration.[34] The decree had no effect on East Pakistan.[34][18] However, the dissolution of the One Unit policy did not lead to the positive results that it might have yielded if withdrawn earlier.[18] Yahya also made an attempt to accommodate the East Pakistanis by abolishing the principle of parity, in the hope that a greater share in the assembly would redress their wounded ethnic regional pride and ensure the integrity of Pakistan. Instead of satisfying the Bengalis, it intensified their vocalness for separatism, causing a further rise in anti-West Wing sentiment in the East Wing.[citation needed]
1970 general election
By 28 July 1969, President Yahya Khan had set a framework for elections that were to be held in December 1970,
As a result, Pakistan stood politically divided. A series of bilateral talks between the PPP and Mujibur Rahman produced no results and were unable to come to an agreement regarding any transfer of power from West Pakistan's representatives to East Pakistan's, on the basis of the six-point programme. West Pakistan politicians generally felt that the proposed six-point programme was a step towards East Pakistan's full secession.[33]
Bangladesh War
While the political deadlock continued between the Awami League, the PPP, and the military government after the general elections in 1970, Yahya Khan began coordinating with his military strategists concerning ongoing dissent in East Pakistan. Both Yahya Khan and Bhutto flew to Dhaka and tried negotiations one more time in mid-March 1971, but they ultimately yielded no results.[33]
On 25 March 1971,[8][5] Yahya initiated Operation Searchlight, a genocidal crackdown by the Pakistan Armed Forces to suppress Bengali dissent and the Bengali nationalist movement.[33][36] It was seen as the sequel to Operation Blitz, which had been launched in November 1970. The Pakistani government's view was that it had to launch a campaign to neutralise a rebellion in East Pakistan to save the unity of Pakistan.[citation needed]
As a result of Operation Searchlight, agitation turned into full-scale civil war as Bengali members of the
Violent disorder and chaos accompanied the Pakistan Army's systematic and deliberate campaign of killing and raping the populace of East Pakistan. The original plan for Operation Searchlight envisioned taking control of the major cities on 26 March 1971 and then eliminating all opposition, political or military[39] within one month. The prolonged Bengali resistance had not been anticipated by Pakistani planners, however.[40] The main phase of Operation Searchlight ended with the fall of the last major town in Bengali hands in mid-May.
The total number of people killed in East Pakistan is not known with any degree of accuracy.
General Yahya Khan arrested Sheikh Mujibur Rahman on charges of
The consequences of the war were mainly that East Pakistan became independent as Bangladesh, and that India captured approximately 15,000 square kilometres (5,800 sq mi) of land previously in West Pakistan. However, the captured territory was given back to Pakistan in the Simla Agreement signed on 2 July 1972 between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.[46]
The 1971 war led to increased tensions between Pakistan and India, although Pakistan recognised the independence of Bangladesh following severe pressure from the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.
US role
The United States had been a major sponsor of President Yahya's military government. American journalist
Since 1960, Pakistan was perceived in the United States as an integral bulwark against
Nixon urged President Yahya Khan multiple times to exercise restraint.[50] His objective was to prevent a war and safeguard Pakistan's interests, though he feared an Indian invasion of Pakistan that would lead to Indian domination of the subcontinent and strengthen the position of the Soviet Union.[51] Similarly, President Yahya feared that an independent Bangladesh could lead to the disintegration of Pakistan, and said publicly in August 1971 that Indian military support for Bengali guerrillas could lead to war between India and Pakistan.[52]
In November 1971, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi met Nixon in Washington. She assured him that she didn't want war with Pakistan, but he did not believe her.
On 3 December 1971, Yahya preemptively attacked the Indian Air Force and Gandhi retaliated, pushing into East Pakistan. Nixon issued a statement blaming Pakistan for starting the conflict and blaming India for escalating it.[55] He favored a cease-fire.[56] The United States was secretly encouraging the shipment of military equipment from Iran, Turkey, and Jordan to Pakistan, offering to replenish those countries' weapons stocks later[57] despite Congressional objections.[35] The US used the threat of an aid cut-off to force Pakistan to back down, while its continued military aid to Islamabad prevented India from launching incursions deeper into the country. Pakistan forces in East Pakistan surrendered in Dhaka on 16 December 1971, leading to the creation of the independent state of Bangladesh.[8][33][58]
Fall from power
When the news of Pakistan's
Within hours of Yahya Khan stepping down, President Bhutto reversed the Judge Advocate General Branch's verdict against Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and instead released him, allowing him to fly to London. President Bhutto also orders for the house arrest of Yahya, the man who imprisoned Mujib in the first place. Both actions made news headlines around the world.[8]
Personal life
Religion
He was nominally a
During his rule from 1969 to 1971, Mian Tufail Mohammad, a prominent leader of the Jamaat-e-Islami, the country's main Islamist party, hailed Yahya as "the champion of Islam", as there was a general view among Islamists that he would fight leftist elements of the country (the Pakistan People's Party in West Pakistan and the Awami League in what was East Pakistan and now Bangladesh) and also push for the Islamization of the Constitution.[63] More generally, Yahya used the intelligence services (the ISI and the IB) "to keep secular political parties under check", mobilizing the Information Ministry for propaganda and pushing the idea that they put "Islam and Pakistan in danger."[64]
Towards the end of his life, during and following his imprisonment, Yahya slowly abandoned drinking altogether as he "turned extremely religious."[65]
Relationships
Yahya is said to have had a relationship with Akleem Akhtar, nicknamed General Rani, but he was never married.[66] His name was linked with the singer and actress Noor Jehan as well.[67] He also had a brief relationship with a Bengali woman called Mrs Shamim K. Hussain, also known as Black Beauty.[68] The wife of a police officer, Yahya appreciated her company not so much for her looks but mainly because she was fluent in English and could talk about Shakespeare and Lord Byron, among his favourite poets, and she eventually became influential enough to shape the decisions of the foreign office.[69]
Family
Yahya had a son named Ali Yahya and a daughter named Yasmin Yahya.[70]
His elder brother Agha Muhammad Ali Khan worked in the police, among other postings being the
and later retired as Inspector General West Pakistan.His nephew Ahmed Ali was also in the Pakistan Army, as a captain and then as a major serving as Yahya's aide-de-camp from 1966 to 1969[72] and later was elevated to the rank of major general in the Pakistan Army.
Death
Yahya remained under house arrest until 1979, when he was released from custody by martial law administrator General Fazle Haq. He stayed out from public events and wrote down his memoirs in the form of notes that remain unpublished.[72] He died on 10 August 1980 in Rawalpindi, Punjab and was interred at Circle road graveyard, Peshawar, Pakistan.[8][5]
Legacy
In Pakistan
Yahya Khan was awarded
In the United States
In the United States, he has been appreciated for facilitating the American opening to China, President Richard Nixon sending a handwritten letter to him, stating that "without your personal assistance the profound breakthrough in relations between the USA and the [Peoples Republic of China] would never have been accomplished... Those who want a more peaceful world in the generations to come will be forever in your debt."[74]
In popular culture
In the 2023 film Sam Bahadur, Khan is portrayed by Mohammed Zeeshan Ayyub.
Book
- The Breaking of Pakistan: Yahya Speaks about the Bhutto-Mujib Interaction which Broke Pakistan, Lahore: Liberty Publishers, 1997, 184 p.
Notes
- Urdu: آغا محمد یحیٰی خان
References
- ISBN 978-0-415-94430-4.
The Pakistani government (the Yahya regime) was primarily responsible for the genocide. Not only did it prevent the Awami League and Rahman from forming the federal government, but it opted for a military solution to a constitutional crisis. In doing so, it decided to unleash a brutal military operation in order to terrorize the Bengalis. Yahya's decision to put General Tikka Khan (who had earned the name of "Butcher of Baluchistan" for his earlier brutal suppression of Baluchi nationals in the 1960s) in charge of the military operation in Bangladesh was an overt signal of the regime's intention to launch a genocide.
- ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
The military junta—led by General Yahya Khan, who had assumed power in 1969—was reluctant to accept the election results, and Khan postponed convening Pakistan's National Assembly... On March 25, 1971, the Pakistani Army launched a full-scale campaign, known as Operation Searchlight. After arresting Mujib and abducting him to West Pakistan and banning his party, it set about massacring his supporters, with American weapons. Firing squads spread out across East Pakistan, sometimes assisted by local collaborators from Islamist groups that had been humiliated in the elections. In the countryside, where the armed resistance was strongest, the Pakistani military burned and strafed villages, killing thousands and turning many more into refugees. Hindus, who composed more than ten per cent of the population, were targeted, their un-Muslimness ascertained by a quick inspection underneath their lungis. Tens of thousands of women were raped in a campaign of terror.
- ^ "The Past has yet to Leave the Present: Genocide in Bangladesh". Harvard International Review. 1 February 2023. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
- ^ "House Resolution1430 - Recognizing the Bangladesh Genocide of 1971". United States Congress.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "General Yahya Khan | Former Army Chief of Pakistan enforcing Martial Law in 1969". Story of Pakistan website. 26 October 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
- ^ ISBN 978-1598843378.
- ^ Democracy, security, and development in India. By Raju G. C. Thomas.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Yahya Khan: president of Pakistan on Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 22 July 2020
- ISBN 978-0-674-72864-6.
The promotion was all the more remarkable given that Yahya was a Shia in the predominantly Sunni officer corps.
- ISBN 978-0824812874.
- ISBN 978-0520948006.
- ISBN 978-0-19023-518-5.
Pashtuns (the community from which hailed the country's first four commanders-in-chief from Ayub Khan to Yahya Khan and Gul Hassan Khan, with the exception of Mohammad Musa)
- ISBN 978-1568585031.
A burly, double chinned, bushy-browed slothful Yahya Khan was, like Ayub Khan, an ethnic Pashtun.
- ISBN 9780025952409.
- ^ "Good Soldier Yahya Khan". Time. 2 August 1971. p. 32. Archived from the original on 8 April 2008. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
- ^ a b Berindranath, Dewan (2006). Private Life of Yahya Khan. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. p. 20.
- ISBN 978-0-415-97664-0. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
- ^ a b c d e Shaikh Aziz (25 December 2011). "A chapter from history: Yahya Khan's quick action". Dawn. Pakistan. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
- ^ Berindranath, Dewan (2006). Private Life of Yahya Khan. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. pp. 22–24.
- ^ "Khan, Aga Mohammad Yahya". Banglapedia. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
- ^ a b A.R. Siddiqi (25 April 2004). "Army's top slot: the seniority factor (scroll down to read this section and title)". Dawn. Pakistan. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
- ^ Dennis Kux, India and the United States: Estranged Democracies (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1992), 239.
- ^ ISBN 978-8170996743.
- ISBN 0-520-07665-6.
- ISBN 978-0-670-08856-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-9041117755.
- ISBN 978-0-19023-518-5.
- ^ "Martial Law Proclaimed, President Ayub Resigns". Pakistan Affairs. 22 (4). Washington D.C.: Information Division, Embassy of Pakistan. 1969.
- ISBN 978-8172120016.
- ^ a b c d Dr. GN. Kazi (21 May 2008). "Pakistan's Smallest Cabinet". Dr. GN. Kazi. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
- ISBN 978-0-7129-0954-9.
- ^ a b PILDT. "The Evolution of National Security Council in Pakistan". Pakistan Institute of Legislative Development and Transparency. PILDT. Retrieved 2 March 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i From disunion through the Zia al-Huq era Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 22 July 2020
- ^ ISBN 978-0521894401.
- ^ a b c Gandhi, Sajit (16 December 2002). "The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971". The National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79. The National Security Archive (United States). Retrieved 20 July 2020.
- ^ Bose, Sarmila (8 October 2005). "Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971". Economic and Political Weekly. Archived from the original on 1 March 2007. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
- ^ a b Mark Dummett (16 December 2011). "Bangladesh war: The article that changed history". BBC News. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
- ^ a b Ian Jack (21 May 2011). "It's not the arithmetic of genocide that's important. It's that we pay attention". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
- ISBN 978-984-05-1373-4.
- ^ Pakistan Defence Journal, 1977, Vol 2, p2-3
- ^ Bass 2013, pp. 350–351 reviews the various estimates here [1].
- ^ White, Matthew, Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century
- ^ Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report, chapter 2, paragraph 33
- PMID 18566045.
- ^ Ahsan, Syed Badrul (8 August 2019). "When Pakistan put Bangabandhu on trial". Dhaka Tribune. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
- ^ "A leaf from history: Simla Agreement, at last". Dawn. Pakistan. 23 September 2012. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
- ^ Bass 2013, p. 7
- ^ Kissinger's Secret Trip to China
- ^ Mosleh Uddin. "Personal Prejudice Makes Foreign Policy". Asiaticsociety.org.bd. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2020.
- ^ Black 2007, p. 751
- ^ "The Kissinger Tilt". Time. 17 January 1972. p. 17. Archived from the original on 6 November 2012. Retrieved 30 September 2008.
- ^ "World: Pakistan: The Ravaging of Golden Bengal". Time. 2 August 1971. Archived from the original on 11 March 2007. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ Black 2007, pp. 751–752
- ^ Jayakar, Indira Gandhi, p. 232; Kissinger, White House Years, pp. 878 & 881–82.
- ^ Black 2007, p. 753
- ^ Black 2007, p. 755
- ^ Black 2007, p. 756
- ^ Black 2007, p. 757
- ISBN 978-0-674-72864-6.
The promotion was all the more remarkable given that Yahya was a Shia in the predominantly Sunni officer corps.
- ^ Badrul Ahsan, Syed (15 March 2016). "The rise and fall of Yahya Khan". The Daily Observer. Retrieved 30 May 2022.
Yahya Khan had a life-long affair with drinking, to a point where he invariably got raucously tipsy. His affairs with women were legion.
- ISBN 978-0-674-72864-6.
Yahya's energies were also sapped by his hectic social routine. He was excessively fond of the bottle, and his pursuit of a string of liaisons was unblemished by concerns about public opprobrium or professional ethics.
- ^ Berindranath, Dewan (2006). Private Life of Yahya Khan. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. pp. 24–25.
- ^ Zaman, Muhammad Qasim (2020). Islam in Pakistan: A History. Princeton University Press. p. 158.
- ^ Singh, Ravi Shekhar Narayan (2008). The Military Factor in Pakistan. Lancer Publishers. p. 230.
- ^ Berindranath, Dewan (2006). Private Life of Yahya Khan. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. p. 121.
- ^ Nadeem F. Paracha (28 March 2014). "The fascinating tale of General Rani". The Friday Times (newspaper). Retrieved 17 July 2020.
- ^ Naveed, Ahmed (14 December 2021). "Lest We Forget: Yahya Khan Was Busy Partying As Dhaka Fell". The Friday Times.
- ^ "Yahya Khan Was Busy Having a Good Time as Dhaka Fell". 18 December 2019.
- ^ Berindranath, Dewan (2006). Private Life of Yahya Khan. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. p. 63.
- ^ "General Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan". 27 August 2000.
- ^ Biographical Encyclopedia of Pakistan. Biographical Research Institute, Pakistan. 1970. p. 295.
- ^ a b Cowasjee, Ardeshir (27 August 2020). "General Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan". Dawn News. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
- ISBN 9780674731271.
- ^ Kux, Dennis (2001). The United States and Pakistan, 1947-2000: Disenchanted Allies. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 195.
Bibliography
- Mukerjee, Dilip (1972). Yahya Khan's "Final War": India Meets Pakistan's Threat. Times of India.
- Bhargava, G.S. (1972). "Crush India"--Gen. Yahya Khan Or, Pakistan's Death Wish. Indian School Supply Depot.
- Berindranath, Dewan (1974). Private Life of Yahya Khan. Sterling Publishers.
- Black, Conrad (2007). Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 9781586486747.
- ISBN 978-0-307-70020-9.
- Ṣiddīqī, ʻAbdurraḥmān (2020). General Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan: The Rise & Fall of a Soldier, 1947-1971. Oxford University Press.
External links
