Buddhahood
In
This highest spiritual state of being is also termed sammā-sambodhi (skt. samyaksaṃbodhi 'full complete awakening'). This state is interpreted in many different ways in the various schools of Buddhism.The title of "Buddha" is most commonly used for
, known as the Buddha of the future who will attain awakening at a future time.The goal of the
Definition
Part of a series on |
Buddhism |
---|
Buddhahood is the state of an awakened being, who, having found the path of cessation of
There is a broad spectrum of opinion on the nature of Buddhahood, its universality, and the
In
In Mahāyāna Buddhism meanwhile, a Buddha is seen as a transcendent being who has extensive powers, such as omniscience, omnipotence, and whose awakened wisdom (buddha-jñana) is all pervasive.[10][11] This view can be found in numerous Mahāyāna sources, like the Avatamsaka sutra.[11]
Mahāyāna buddhology mainly understands the Buddha through the "three bodies" (trikaya) framework.[12] In this framework, the historical Buddha or other Buddhas who appear human are understood docetically as magical "transformation bodies" (nirmanakaya). Meanwhile, the real or ultimate Buddha is the Dharmakaya, the body of ultimate reality. Thus, the Ratnagotravibhāga (Analysis of the Jeweled Lineage), a key Mahāyāna treatise, defines the Buddha as "the uncompounded (asamskrta), and spontaneous (anabhoga) Dharmakaya" and as "self-enlightened and self-arisen wisdom (jñana), compassion and power for the benefit of others."[13] This ultimate awakened reality is understood and interpreted in numerous different ways by the different Mahayana schools.
The Buddha-nature doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism also consider Buddhahood to be a universal and innate property which is immanent in all beings.
Most Buddhists do not consider Gautama Buddha to have been the only Buddha. The
Nature of the Buddha
The various Buddhist schools hold some varying interpretations on the nature of Buddha. All Buddhist traditions hold that a Buddha is fully awakened and has completely purified his mind of the
Most schools of Buddhism have also held that the Buddha was omniscient. However, the early texts contain explicit repudiations of making this claim of the Buddha.[14][15]
Mahāyāna buddhology expands the powers of a Buddha exponentially, seeing them as having unlimited lifespan and all-pervasive omniscient wisdom, as omnipotent, and as able to produce an infinite number of magical manifestations (nirmanakayas) as well as being able to produce pure lands (heaven-like realms for bodhisattvas).
The classic superknowledges
The Early Buddhist texts (and other later sources as well) contain a classic list of "supernormal knowledges" (Skt. abhijñā, Pali: abhiññā) that a Buddha has attained through spiritual practice.[16]
There is an ancient list of "six classes of superknowledge" (Pali: chalabhiññā, Skt. ṣaḍabhijña) that Buddhas have which are found in various Buddhist sources. These are:[17]
- "Higher powers" (P: iddhi, S: ṛddhi), such as walking on water and through walls; flight, becoming invisible and creating mind made bodies.
- "Divine ear" (Pali: dibbasota), that is, clairaudience which extends in the human realm as well as into the other realms, like the realms of the gods (devas).
- "Mind-penetrating knowledge" (cetopariyañāṇa), that is, telepathy;
- "Remember one's former abodes" (pubbenivāsanussati), recalling one's own past lives stretching back eons into the past.
- "Divine eye" (dibbacakkhu), that is, knowing others' karmic destinations (where they will be reborn); and,
- "Knowledge of the destruction of the mental pollutants" (āsavakkhaya), which is the eradication of all negative mental states and the ending of suffering. This knowledge is the "liberation of the mind" (Pali: cetovimutti, Skt. cittavimukti).
Miraculous displays
Buddhist texts include numerous stories of the Buddha's miracles, which include displays of the abhiññās, healings, elemental magic (such as manipulating fire and water), and various other supernatural phenomena, traveling to higher realms of Buddhist cosmology, and others.[18][19]
One of the most famous of these miracles was the Twin Miracle at Sāvatthī, in which the Buddha emitted fire from the top of his body and water from his lower body simultaneously, before alternating them and then expanding them to illuminate the cosmos.[20][21][22]
Mahayana sutras contain even more extensive miracles. In the Vimalakirti Sutra, the Buddha display the true pure nature of his "buddha field" to everyone on earth, who suddenly beholds the world as a perfect world filled with jewels and other majestic features.[23] Likewise, in the Lotus Sutra, the Buddha shakes the earth and shines a beam of light which illuminates thousands of "buddha-fields".[24]
Ten epithets of a Buddha
Some Buddhists meditate on (or contemplate) the Buddha as having ten characteristics (Ch./Jp. 十號). These characteristics are frequently mentioned in the Pāli Canon as well as in other early Buddhist sources as well as in Mahayana texts, and are chanted daily in many Buddhist monasteries. The ten epithets are:[25]
- Thus gone, thus come (Skt: tathāgata)
- Worthy one (Skt: arhat)
- Perfectly self-enlightened (Skt: samma-sambuddha)
- Perfected in knowledge and conduct (Skt: vijya-carana-sampanno )
- Well gone (Skt: sugato)
- Knower of the world (Skt: lokavidu)
- Unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed (Skt: anuttaro-puriṣa-damma-sārathi)
- Teacher of the gods and humans (Skt: śaththa deva-manuṣsāṇaṃ)
- The Enlightened One (Skt: buddha)
- The Blessed One or fortunate one (Skt: bhagavat)[26]
The tenth epithet is sometimes listed as "The World Honored Enlightened One" (Skt. Buddha-Lokanatha) or "The Blessed Enlightened One" (Skt. Buddha-Bhagavan).[27]
Acts of a Buddha
According to various Buddhist texts, upon reaching Buddhahood each Buddha performs various acts (buddhacarita) during his life to complete his duty as a Buddha.[28]
The Mahayana tradition generally follows the list of "Twelve Great Buddha Acts" (Skt. dvadaśabuddhakārya). These are:[29][30]
- A Buddha must descend from Tushita heaven and transfer his throne to the next future Buddha.
- A Buddha must enter his mothers womb.
- A Buddha must be born (generally accompanied by miracles).
- A Buddha must master numerous arts and skills in his youth.
- A Buddha must live in the palace and enjoy his life with his wife.
- A Buddha must make a great departure from his palace and become a renunciant (sramana).
- A Buddha must practice asceticism.
- A Buddha must sit under a buddha tree (like the bodhi tree) on a bodhimanda (place of awakening)
- A Buddha must defeat the demonic forces of Mara.
- A Buddha must attain and manifest full awakening.
- A Buddha must give his first sermon, and thus turn the wheel of the Dharma.
- A Buddha must die and pass into Nirvana, demonstrating liberation and impermanence.
The Pali suttas do not have such a list, but the Theravada commentarial tradition lists 30 obligatory acts of a Buddha.[31]
Views about the Buddha
Buddha as a supreme person
The Theravada Buddhist tradition generally sees the Buddha as a supreme person which is not a theistic God nor is a regular human. Thus, the Buddha is seen as a very special and unique class of persons called a "great person" (mahāpurisa).[32][33]
Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human. Instead, he is seen as having many supranormal powers (
In the Pāli Canon, the Buddha is depicted as someone between a human and a divine being. He has a human body which decays and dies, and he was born from human parents (though some sources depict this as a miraculous birth). The most important element of a Buddha is that they have attained the supreme spiritual goal, nirvana.[32] This is what makes him supreme and what grants him special powers.
In Pāli Canon, the Buddha is asked whether he was a deva or a human, he replies that he had eliminated the deep-rooted unconscious traits that would make him either one, and should instead be called a Buddha: one who had grown up in the world but had now gone beyond it, as a lotus grows from the water but blossoms above it, unsoiled.[35]
The Pāli Canon also states that Gautama Buddha is known as being a "teacher of the gods and humans", superior to both the gods (devas) and humans since he has attain the highest liberation, whereas the gods are still subject to anger, fear and sorrow.[36] In the Madhupindika Sutta (MN 18), Buddha is described in powerful terms as the Lord of the Dhamma and the bestower of immortality.[37]
Similarly, in the Anuradha Sutta (SN 44.2), Gautama Buddha is described as the "supreme man" and the "attainer of the superlative attainment".[38] Because he has attained the highest spiritual knowledge, the Buddha is also identified with the Dhamma (the most fundamental reality) In the Vakkali Sutta (SN 22.87).[39]
The Buddha as a transcendent and supramundane being
Mahāsāṃghika school
In the early Buddhist schools, the Mahāsāṃghika branch regarded the buddhas as being characterized primarily by their supramundane (lokottara) nature. The Mahāsāṃghikas advocated the transcendental and supramundane nature of the buddhas and bodhisattvas, and the fallibility of arhats.[41] Of the 48 special theses attributed by the Samayabhedoparacanacakra to the Mahāsāṃghika Ekavyāvahārika, Lokottaravāda, and the Kukkuṭika, 20 points concern the supramundane nature of buddhas and bodhisattvas.[42] According to the Samayabhedoparacanacakra, these four groups held that the Buddha is able to know all dharmas in a single moment of the mind.[43] Yao Zhihua writes:[43]
In their view, the Buddha is equipped with the following supernatural qualities: transcendence (lokottara), lack of defilements, all of his utterances preaching his teaching, expounding all his teachings in a single utterance, all of his sayings being true, his physical body being limitless, his power (prabhāva) being limitless, the length of his life being limitless, never tiring of enlightening sentient beings and awakening pure faith in them, having no sleep or dreams, no pause in answering a question, and always in meditation (samādhi).
A doctrine ascribed to the Mahāsāṃghikas is, "The power of the tathāgatas is unlimited, and the life of the buddhas is unlimited."[44] According to Guang Xing, two main aspects of the Buddha can be seen in Mahāsāṃghika teachings: the true Buddha who is omniscient and omnipotent, and the manifested forms through which he liberates sentient beings through skillful means.[45] For the Mahāsaṃghikas, the historical Gautama Buddha was one of these transformation bodies (Skt. nirmāṇakāya), while the essential real Buddha is equated with the Dharmakāya.[46]
As in Mahāyāna traditions, the Mahāsāṃghikas held the doctrine of the existence of many contemporaneous buddhas throughout the ten directions.[47] In the Mahāsāṃghika Lokānuvartana Sūtra, it is stated, "The Buddha knows all the dharmas of the countless buddhas of the ten directions."[47] It is also stated, "All buddhas have one body, the body of the Dharma."[47] The concept of many bodhisattvas simultaneously working toward buddhahood is also found among the Mahāsāṃghika tradition, and further evidence of this is given in the Samayabhedoparacanacakra, which describes the doctrines of the Mahāsāṃghikas.[48]
Guang Xing writes that the Acchariyābbhūtasutta of the Majjhimanikāya along with its Chinese Madhyamāgama parallel is the most ancient source for the Mahāsāṃghika view. The sutra mentions various miracles performed by the Buddha before his birth and after. The Chinese version even calls him Bhagavan, which suggests the idea that the Buddha was already awakened before descending down to earth to be born.[49]
Similarly, the idea that the lifespan of a Buddha is limitless is also based on ancient ideas, such as the Mahāparinirvānasūtra's statement that the Buddha's lifespan is as long as an eon (kalpa) but that he voluntarily allowed his life to end.[49] Another early source for the Mahāsāṃghika view that a Buddha was a transcendent being is the idea of the thirty-two major marks of a Buddha's body.[49] Furthermore, the Simpsapa sutta states that the Buddha had way more knowledge than what he taught to his disciples. The Mahāsāṃghikas took this further and argued that the Buddha knew the dharmas of innumerable other Buddhas of the ten directions.
Mahāyāna Buddhism
Mahāyāna Buddhism generally follows the Mahāsāṃghika ideal of the Buddha being a transcendent and omniscient being with unlimited spiritual powers. Guang Xing describes the Buddha in Mahāyāna as an omnipotent and almighty divinity "endowed with numerous supernatural attributes and qualities".[50] Mahāyāna cosmology also includes innumerable Buddhas who reside in innumerable buddha-fields (buddha kshetra).[51] The Mahāyāna Lotus Sutra for example, says the lifespan of the Buddha as immeasurable. It also says that the Buddha actually achieved Buddhahood countless of eons (kalpas) ago and has already been teaching the Dharma through his numerous manifestations (nirmana) for eons.[52][53]
In spite of this transcendent nature however, Mahāyāna also affirms the immanent nature of Buddhahood in all beings (through the doctrine of Buddha-nature, which is seen as something that all beings have). This view of an immanent Buddha essence in all normal human beings is common throughout East Asian Buddhism.[54][55][56][57]
The myriad Buddhas are also seen as active in the world, guiding all sentient beings to Buddhahood. Paul Williams writes that the Buddha in Mahāyāna is "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world".[58] This view entails a kind of docetism regarding the "historical" Buddha, Shakyamuni. His life and death was a "mere appearance", like a magic show; in reality, the Buddha still exists and is constantly helping living beings.[58]
Because of this transcendental view, Mahāyāna Buddhologies have sometimes been compared to various types of theism (including pantheism) by different scholars, though there is disagreement among scholars regarding this issue as well on the general relationship between Buddhism and Theism.[59]
Since Buddhas remain accessible, a Mahāyānist can direct prayers to them, as well as experience visions and revelations from them. This has been very influential in the history of Mahāyāna Buddhism.[60] Furthermore, a Mahāyāna devotee can also aspire to be reborn in a Buddha's pure land or buddha field (buddhakṣetra), where they can strive towards Buddhahood in the best possible conditions. This practice is the central element of East Asian Pure Land Buddhism.[61]
The Buddha as just a wise human
Some modern Buddhists have argued that the Buddha was just a human being, albeit a very wise one.[34] This is a common view in Buddhist modernism, which sought to teach a form of Buddhism that was modern, rational and scientific.[62] One figure who sees Buddha as mainly human is Thích Nhất Hạnh, a Vietnamese Buddhist monk in the Zen tradition, who states that "Buddha was not a god. He was a human being like you and me, and he suffered just as we do."[63]
In a similar fashion, Jack Maguire, a Western monk of the Mountains and Rivers Order in New York, writes that Buddha is inspirational based on his humanness:
A fundamental part of Buddhism's appeal to billions of people over the past two and a half millennia is the fact that the central figure, commonly referred to by the title "Buddha", was not a god, or a special kind of spiritual being, or even a prophet or an emissary of one. On the contrary, he was a human being like the rest of us who quite simply woke up to full aliveness.[64]
Lists of Buddhas
The Seven Buddhas of Antiquity
In the earliest strata of
- Vipassī (lived ninety-one kalpas ago)
- Sikhī (lived thirty-one kalpas ago)
- Vessabhū (lived thirty-one kalpas ago in the same kalpa as Sikhī)
- Kakusandha (the first Buddha of the current good eon)
- Koṇāgamana(the second Buddha of the current eon)
- Kassapa (the third Buddha of the current eon)
- Gautama(the fourth and present Buddha of the current eon)
One sutta called Chakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta from an early Buddhist text called the
However, according to a text in the Theravada Buddhist tradition from a later strata (between 1st and 2nd century BCE) called the
The
According to Xuanzang, Koṇāgamana's relics were held in a stupa in Nigali Sagar, in what is now Kapilvastu District in southern Nepal.[72]
The historical Buddha, Gautama, also called Sakyamuni ("Sage of the
When King Devānāmpriya Priyadasin had been anointed twenty years, he came himself and worshipped (this spot) because the
Rummindei Edict, one of the Minor Pillar Edicts of Ashoka.[74]
The last 28 Buddhas of Theravāda (aṭavīsi Buddha)
The
The first three of these
Many Buddhists also pay homage to the future Buddha, Metteyya. According to
Pāli name[77][78][79] | Sanskrit name | Birthplace[78][79] | Parents (father - mother)[78][79][80] | Bodhirukkha (tree of enlightenment)[78][79][81] | Incarnation of Gautama[79] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Taṇhaṅkara | Tṛṣṇaṃkara | Puppavadī | Sunanda - Sunandā | Rukkaththana | |
2 | Medhaṅkara | Medhaṃkara | Yaghara | Sudeva - Yasodharā | Kaela | |
3 | Saraṇaṅkara
|
Śaraṇaṃkara | Vipula | Sumaṅgala - Yasavatī | Pulila | |
4 | Dīpaṃkara
|
Dīpaṃkara | Rammavatī | Sudeva - Sumedhā | Pipphala | Sumedha (also Sumati or Megha Mānava)[82] |
5 | Koṇḍañña
|
Kauṇḍinya | Rammavatī | Sunanda - Sujātā | Salakalyana | Vijitawi (a Chakravarti in Chandawatinagara of Majjhimadesa) |
6 | Maṅgala | Maṃgala | Uttara (Majhimmadesa) | Uttara - Uttarā | Nāga (Mesua ferrea) | Suruchi (in Siribrahmano) |
7 | Sumana | Sumanas | Mekhala | Sudassana - Sirimā | Nāga (Mesua ferrea) | King Atulo, a Naga |
8 | Revata[83] | Raivata | Sudhaññavatī | Vipula - Vipulā | Nāga (Mesua ferrea) | |
9 | Sobhita | Śobhita | Sudhamma | Sudhamma - Sudhammā | Nāga (Mesua ferrea) | Sujata (in Rammavati) |
10 | Anomadassi
|
Anavamadarśin | Candavatī | Yasava - Yasodharā | Ajjuna | A Yaksha king |
11 | Paduma[84] | Padma | Campaka | Asama - Asamā | Salala | A lion |
12 | Nārada | Nārada | Dhaññavatī | Raja Sudeva - Anomā | Sonaka | A tapaso in the Himalayas |
13 | Padumuttara[85] | Padmottara | Haṁsavatī | Ānanda - Sujātā | Salala | Jatilo, an ascetic |
14 | Sumedha | Sumedha | Sudassana | Sumedha - Sumedhā | Nipa | Native of Uttaro |
15 | Sujāta | Sujāta | Sumaṅgala | Uggata - Pabhāvatī | Welu | A chakravarti |
16 | Piyadassi[86] | Priyadarśin | Sudhañña | Sudinna/Sudatta - Sucandā | Kakudha | Kassapa (at Siriwattanagara) |
17 | Atthadassi | Arthadarśin | Sobhana | Sāgara - Sudassanā | Champa | Susino, |
18 | Dhammadassī | Dharmadarśin | Saraṇa | Saraṇa - Sunandā | Bimbajala | Indra |
19 | Siddhattha | Siddhārtha | Vebhāra | Udena - Suphassā | Kanihani | Mangal |
20 | Tissa | Tiṣya | Khemaka | Janasandha - Padumā | Assana | King Sujata of Yasawatinagara |
21 | Phussa[87]
|
Puṣya | Kāsika | Jayasena - Sirimā | Amalaka | Vijitavi |
22 | Vipassī
|
Vipaśyin | Bandhumatī | Bandhumā - Bandhumatī | Pāṭalī (Stereospermum chelonoides) | King Atula |
23 | Sikhī | Śikhin | Aruṇavatī | Aruṇa - Pabhāvatī | Puṇḍarīka (Mangifera indica) | Arindamo (at Paribhuttanagara) |
24 | Vessabhū
|
Viśvabhū | Anoma | Suppatīta - Yasavatī | Sāla (Shorea robusta) | Sadassana (in Sarabhavatinagara) |
25 | Kakusandha
|
Krakucchanda | Khemāvatī | Aggidatta - Visākhā | Sirīsa (Albizia lebbeck) | King Khema[88] |
26 | Koṇāgamana
|
Kanakamuni[89] | Sobhavatī | Yaññadatta - Uttarā | Udumbara (Ficus racemosa) | King Pabbata of a mountainous area in Mithila |
27 | Kassapa[90] | Kāśyapa | Bārāṇasī | Brahmadatta - Dhanavatī | Nigrodha (Ficus benghalensis) | Jotipala (at Vappulla) |
28 | Gotama
|
Gautama (current) | Kapilavatthu | Suddhodana - Māyā | Assattha (Ficus religiosa) | Gautama, the Buddha |
29 | Metteyya
|
Maitreya[91](next) | Ketumatī (Bārāṇasi) | Subrahmā -Brahmavatī | Nāga (Mesua ferrea) |
Mahāyāna Buddhas
Mahāyāna Buddhists venerate numerous Buddhas that are not found in early Buddhism or in Theravada Buddhism. They are generally seen as living in other realms, known as buddha-fields (Sanskrit: buddhakṣetra) or pure lands (Ch: 淨土; p: Jìngtǔ) in East Asian Buddhism. They are sometimes called "celestial Buddhas", since they are not from this earth.
Some of the key Mahāyāna Buddhas are:
- Akshobhya ("the Imperturbable"), appears in various sutras like the Vimalakirti sutra. His buddha-field is Abhirati (lit. "The Joyous").
- Amitābha (Amida Buddha, ."Infinite Light"), the principal Buddha of Pure Land Buddhism. His buddha-field is called Sukhāvatī ("Blissful").
- Amoghasiddhi ("Infallible Success")
- Bhaiṣajyaguru ("Medicine guru") also known as "Medicine Buddha", the healing Buddha. His pure land is Vaiḍūryanirbhāsa ("Pure Beryl Light").
- Ratnasambhava ("Jewel Born")
- Avatamsaka Sutra and the Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra. He is the central Buddha in Huayan Buddhism, Chinese Esoteric Buddhism and Shingon. His pure land is known as the Padmagarbhalokadhātu (the lotus treasury world) and also as "Densely Arrayed Akaniṣṭha" (Ghanavyūhakaniṣṭha).
- Prabhūtaratna ("Many Treasures"), an ancient Buddha who appears in the Lotus Sutra
- Samantabhadra, a Buddha who is mentioned in the Akṣayamatinirdeśa Sūtra, which states that the bodhisattva Akṣayamati is said to be from the Buddha field of Samantabhadra.[92]
- Larger Sutra of Immeasurable Life
- , the future Buddha.
Some Mahāyāna sutras also contain long lists of Buddhas which are used in different ways. One popular list of Buddhas is the Thirty-Five Confession Buddhas which is found in the Sutra of the Three Heaps (Sanskrit: Triskandhadharmasutra). This sutra is popular in Tibetan Buddhist rites of confession.[93]
The Bhadrakalpikasūtra contains a list of one thousand and four Buddhas and discusses their deeds. Most of these are Buddhas of the future.
In Vajrayana
In Tantric Buddhism (
The Five Tathagatas and some of their associated elements are:
Buddha (Skt) | Main bodhisattva | Buddha-field | Seed syllable | Color | Element | Family and Symbol | Poison (kleśa) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vairocana | Samantabhadra | central pure land Akanistha Ghanavyuha | Vam | White | Space | Buddha family, Wheel | delusion |
Akshobhya | Vajrapani | eastern pure land Abhirati | Hum | Blue | Water | Vajra | envy, jealousy |
Amitābha | Avalokiteśvara | western pure land Sukhavati | Hrih | Red | Fire | Lotus (Padma) | craving |
Ratnasaṃbhava | Ratnapani | southern pure land Shrimat | Tram | Gold/Yellow | Earth | Jewel (Ratna) | pride, greed |
Amoghasiddhi | Viśvapāni | northern pure land Prakuta | Ah | Green | Air | Double vajra
|
aggression, aversion
|
Buddhist Tantra also includes several female Buddhas, such as Tara, the most popular female Buddha in Tibetan Buddhism, who comes in many forms and colors.
In the
Buddhist mythology overlapped with Hindu mythology. Akshobhya, for example, acquires a fierce Tantric form that is reminiscent of the fierce form of the Hindu god Shiva; in this form he became known by the Buddhist names Heruka, Hevajra, or Samvara. He is known in Japan in this guise as Fudō ("Imperturbable"). The Indian god Bhairava, a fierce bull-headed divinity, was adopted by Tantric Buddhists as Vajrabhairava. Also called Yamantaka ("Slayer of Death") and identified as the fierce expression of the gentle Manjushri, he was accorded quasi-buddha rank.
There is also the idea of the
Depictions of the Buddha in art
Buddhas are frequently represented in the form of statues and paintings. Commonly seen postures include:
- The Seated Buddha in the Lotus position
- Buddha seated on a throne
- The Reclining Buddha (usually depicts his final nirvana)
- The Standing Buddha
- A walking Buddha with one step forward
- The emaciated Buddha, which shows Siddhartha Gautama during his extreme ascetic practice of starvation.
- The baby Buddha (usually pointing upwards).
In Theravada Buddhism, the Buddha is always depicted as a monastic shown with hair and he is always shown wearing the simple monk's robe (called a kāṣāya). In Mahayana Buddhism, a Buddha is often also depicted with monastic robes, however some Buddhas are also depicted with different forms of clothing, such as princely or kingly attire, which can include crowns and jewels.
It is common to depict the Buddha accompanied by other figures. In Theravada, it is common to have him flanked by his two main disciples, Moggallana and Sariputta. In Mahayana Buddhism, it is more common to have him surrounded by bodhisattvas, like Manjushri, Samantabhadra and Avalokiteshvara.
The Buddha may also be depicted with various accessories, such as a victory banner (dhvaja), a lotus seat, and a begging bowl.
Special characteristics of a Buddha's body
Most depictions of a Buddha contain a certain number of "marks" (lakṣaṇa), which are considered the signs of his nobility and his enlightenment. The exactly design and style of these features vary regionally but most often they are elements of list of thirty-two physical characteristics of the Buddha called "the signs of a great man" (Skt. mahāpuruṣa lakṣaṇa).
Some of the most obvious features which can be found in many buddha statues include:
- The uṣṇīṣa, a protuberance on the top of the head which symbolizes superb wisdom.
- The ūrṇā, or ūrṇākośa, a spiral tuft of hair or circular dot between the eyebrows.
- Dharma wheels on the soles of his feet and on his hands
- Other auspicious symbols on his body (such as lotuses, swastikas, endless knots, etc.)
- Long earlobes, symbolizing denoting superb perception
- Unnaturally long arms and long thin fingers
- Golden skin
Hand-gestures
The poses and hand-gestures of these statues, known respectively as asanas and mudras, are significant to their overall meaning. The popularity of any particular mudra or asana tends to be region-specific, such as the Vajra (or Chi Ken-in) mudra, which is popular in Japan and Korea but rarely seen in India. Others are more common; for example, the Varada (Wish-Granting) mudra is common among standing statues of the Buddha, particularly when coupled with the Abhaya (Fearlessness and Protection) mudra.
See also
- Eternal Buddha
- Glossary of Buddhism
- List of Buddha claimants
- List of bodhisattvas
- List of named Buddhas
- Secular Buddhism
- Ten Bodhisattas
- Thirty-five Confession Buddhas
References
Citations
- ^ Buswell 2004, p. 71.
- ^ buddhatva, बुद्धत्व. Spoken Sanskrit Dictionary Archived 2017-01-02 at the Wayback Machine. (accessed: January 10, 2016)
- ^ ISBN 0-19-289223-1.
- ISBN 0-19-289223-1.
- ISBN 978-1-136-98588-1. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-01-11. Retrieved 2016-05-29.
- ISBN 978-0-88706-156-1.; Quote: "There are various ways of examining the Complete Path. For example, we can speak of Five Paths constituting its different levels: the Path of Accumulation, the Path of Application, the Path of Seeing, the Path of Meditation and the Path of No More Learning, or Buddhahood."
- ]
- ^ Snelling, John (1987), The Buddhist handbook. A Complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice. London: Century Paperbacks. p. 81
- ^ Udana Commentary. Translation Peter Masefield, volume I, 1994. Pali Text Society. p. 94.
- ^ Williams, Paul (2008). Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. p. 122.
- ^ .
- ^ Snelling, John (1987), The Buddhist handbook. A Complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice, p. 100. London: Century Paperbacks
- ISBN 978-0-7914-0358-7.
- ^ A. K. Warder, Indian Buddhism. Third edition published by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 2000, pp. 132–133.
- ISBN 978-0-8248-1402-1.
- ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8.
- ^ Dalai Lama, Thubten Chodron (2014). Buddhism: One Teacher, Many Traditions, pp. 93–101. Wisdom Publications.
- ISBN 978-1-136-98588-1. Archivedfrom the original on 2019-07-02. Retrieved 2019-05-22.
- ISBN 978-0-86171-864-1. Archived(PDF) from the original on 2017-09-24. Retrieved 2019-05-22.
- ISBN 978-81-206-1071-2. Archivedfrom the original on 2018-03-27. Retrieved 2019-05-12.
- )
- ISBN 978-90-04-27939-1. Archivedfrom the original on 2021-03-18. Retrieved 2017-09-12.
- ^ "The Sutra of Queen Śrīmālā of the Lion's Roar and the Vimalakīrti Sutra" (PDF). 2014-09-12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-09-12. Retrieved 2019-05-22.
- ISBN 978-0-19-026640-0. Archivedfrom the original on 2021-03-18. Retrieved 2020-10-27.
- ^ "In Theravada Buddhism's canonical Buddhavamsa[6] the Ten Perfections (dasa pāramiyo) are (original terms in Pali): | Nexopia – Lifestyle and Community Forums". forums.nexopia.com. Archived from the original on 2021-07-09. Retrieved 2021-07-02.
- ^ Japanese-English Buddhist Dictionary (Daitō shuppansha) 147a/163
- ^ [1] Archived 2012-05-30 at the Wayback Machine, also see Thomas Cleary and J. C. Cleary The Blue Cliff Record, p. 553.
- OCLC 527853452.
- ^ Berzin, Alexander. "The Twelve Deeds of a Buddha". studybuddhism.com. Archived from the original on 2023-03-23. Retrieved 2023-06-25.
- ^ Philippe Cornu, Manuel de bouddhisme — Philosophie, pratique et histoire. Tome I, Bouddhisme ancien et Theravāda (Editions Rangdröl, 2019), pages 37–58.
- ^ Strong, John (2009), The Buddha: A Beginner's Guide, Chapter 1, Oxford: Oneworld Publications
- ^ ISBN 978-955-24-0280-7.
- ISBN 978-1-899579-04-4.
- ^ a b Skilton, Andrew. A Concise History of Buddhism. 2004. pp. 64–65
- ^ Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History, and Practices. Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 28
- ^ Jootla, Susan Elbaum. "Teacher of the Devas". www.accesstoinsight.org. Archived from the original on 2019-01-27. Retrieved 2023-06-25.
- ^ "Madhupindika Sutta: The Ball of Honey". www.accesstoinsight.org. Archived from the original on 2022-10-05. Retrieved 2022-10-05.
- ^ "Anuradha Sutta: To Anuradha". www.accesstoinsight.org. Archived from the original on 2022-10-05. Retrieved 2022-10-05.
- ^ "Vakkali Sutta: Vakkali". www.accesstoinsight.org. Archived from the original on 2022-10-07. Retrieved 2022-10-05.
- ^ Gadkari, Jayant. Society and Religion: From Rgveda to Puranas. 1996. p. 198
- ^ Baruah, Bibhuti. Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism. 2008. p. 48.
- ^ Sree Padma. Barber, Anthony W. Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra. 2008. p. 56.
- ^ a b Yao, Zhihua. The Buddhist Theory of Self-Cognition. 2005. p. 11
- ^ Tanaka, Kenneth. The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine. 1990. p. 8
- ^ Guang Xing. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory. 2004. p. 53
- ^ Sree Padma. Barber, Anthony W. Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra. 2008. pp. 59–60
- ^ a b c Guang Xing. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory. 2004. p. 65
- ^ Guang Xing. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory. 2004. p. 66
- ^ a b c Xing, Guang. An Enquiry into the Origin of the Mahasamghika Buddhology Authors. The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies, 2004, n. 5, p. 41-51.
- ^ Guang Xing (2005). The Three Bodies of the Buddha: The Origin and Development of the Trikaya Theory. Oxford: Routledge Curzon: pp. 1, 85
- ^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 21.
- ISBN 978-0-231-14895-5
- ISBN 978-0-231-14288-5
- ISBN 978-1-315-31789-2.
- ISBN 978-81-208-1944-3.
- OCLC 21035153.
- ^ Major Writings of Nichiren Daishonin, Vol. 1. Soka Gakkai. p. 216.
- ^ a b Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 27.
- S2CID 254354100.
- ^ Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 171.
- ^ Dr. Guang Xing, The Three Bodies of the Buddha: The Origin and Development of the Trikaya Theory, Routledge Curzon, Oxford, 2005, p. 1
- ISBN 978-0-19-518327-6
- ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.
- ISBN 978-1-4767-6196-1.
- ^ John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, 1918 p.46ff (Public Domain text)
- ^ a b Silk et al. 2019, p. 110-111.
- ^ "Cakkavatti Sutta: The Wheel-turning Emperor". Access To Insight. Archived from the original on 2020-11-12. Retrieved 2020-09-13.
- ^ A textual and Historical Analysis of the Khuddaka Nikaya – Oliver Abeynayake Ph.D., Colombo, First Edition – 1984, p. 113.
- ISBN 0-86013-072-X.
- ^ Basanta Bidari – 2004 Kapilavastu: the world of Siddhartha – Page 87
- ^ Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch (in Sanskrit). 1925. p. 165.
- ISBN 978-0-691-11764-5.
- ^ Paranavitana, S. (Apr. – Jun., 1962). Rummindei Pillar Inscription of Asoka, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 82 (2), 163–167
- ^ Hultzsch, E. (1925). Inscriptions of Asoka. Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 164–165.
- Morris, R., ed. (1882). "XXVII: List of the Buddhas". The Buddhavamsa. London: Pali Text Society. pp. 66–7.
- ^ "Life of the Buddha: Dīpankara's Prediction of Enlightenment". The Huntington Archive - The Ohio State University. Archived from the original on 2014-08-08. Retrieved 2012-09-06.
- ^ Malalasekera (2007), Buddha, pp. 294–305
- ^ a b c d Davids, T.W.R.; Davids, R. (1878). "The successive bodhisats in the times of the previous Buddhas". Buddhist birth-stories; Jataka tales. The commentarial introduction entitled Nidana-Katha; the story of the lineage. London: George Routledge & Sons. pp. 115–44.
- ^ ISBN 0-86013-072-X.
- ^ Vipassana.info, Pali Proper Names Dictionary: Metteyya Archived 2020-02-22 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Malalasekera (2007), Bodhirukka, p. 319
- (PDF) from the original on 2021-02-27. Retrieved 2020-09-13.
- ^ Malalasekera (2007), Revata, pp. 754–5
- ^ Malalasekera (2007), Paduma, p. 131
- ^ Malalasekera (2007), Padumuttara, pp. 136–7
- ^ Malalasekera (2007), Piyadassi, p. 207
- ^ Malalasekera (2007), Phussa, p. 257
- ^ Prophecies of Kakusandha Buddha, Konagamana Buddha and Kassapa Buddha Archived 2011-07-13 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 978-81-8315-096-5.
- ^ Cunningham, A. (1880). "XVIII: Tandwa". Report of Tours in the Gangetic Provinces from Badaon to Bihar, in 1875–76 and 1877–78. Calcutta, India: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing. pp. 70–8.
- ^ "Cakkavatti Sutta: The Wheel-turning Emperor". www.accesstoinsight.org. Archived from the original on 2020-11-12. Retrieved 2020-09-13.
- ^ The Noble Mahāyāna Sūtra "The Teaching of Akṣayamati" Āryākṣayamatinirdeśanāmamahāyānasūtra. Toh 175 Degé Kangyur, vol. 60 (mdo sde, ma), folios 79.a–174.b. Translated by Jens Braarvig and David Welsh, University of Oslo under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. First published 2020. Current version v 1.0.9 (2021). https://read.84000.co/translation/toh175.html Archived 2021-06-02 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Watt, Jeff (July 2011). "Thirty-five Confession Buddhas Main Page". Himalayan Art Resources. Retrieved 2016-07-20.
- ^ Nathaniel DeWitt Garson; Penetrating the Secret Essence Tantra: Context and Philosophy in the Mahayoga System of rNying-ma Tantra, page 43
Sources
- Beal, S. (1875). The romantic legend of Sâkya Buddha: from the Chinese-Sanscrit. London, England: Trubner & Company, Ludgate Hill.
- ISBN 978-81-208-3020-2.
- Buswell, Robert, ed. (2004), Encyclopedia of Buddhism, MacMillan reference USA
- Buswell, R.E. Jr.; Lopez, D.S. Jr. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (1st ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 106, 776. ISBN 978-0-691-15786-3.
- Silk, Jonathan A.; von Hinüber, Oskar; Eltschinger, Vincent; Bowring, Richard; Radich, Michael (2019), Brill's encyclopedia of Buddhism Vol Two, OCLC 909251257